কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তি আসছে ( অনুবাদ ;- এনামুল হক (সূত্র : দি ইকোনমিস্ট ) সূত্র ;- দৈনিক জনকণ্ঠ ) and China’s Quantum Commu ications with what is quantum mechanics ? from internate
প্রকাশিত : ২১ মার্চ ২০১৭
এনামুল হক (সূত্র : দি ইকোনমিস্ট )
প্রায় এক শতাব্দী পাঠ্যবইয়ে আবদ্ধ থাকা এবং কয়েক দশক ল্যাবরেটরিতে
পরীক্ষা-নিরীক্ষার বিষয় হিসেবে গণ্য হওয়ার পর কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তি আজ বিস্ময়কর ফল
এনে দিতে শুরু করেছে। নতুন নতুন অভাবনীয় সব আবিষ্কারের পথ উন্মোচন করে দিচ্ছে। এই
কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তির বদৌলতেই আজ প্রতিটি নিউরনকে দেখা যায় এমন এক বিশেষ ধরনের
বাথিং ক্যাপ পরা মানুষের মনের ভেতর কি চলছে অন্যরা তা জানতে পারছে। এই প্রযুক্তির
সুযোগেই বিশেষ ধরনের সেন্সর দিয়ে সন্ধান বের করা যাচ্ছে লুকিয়ে থাকা সাবমেরিনের।
এই প্রযুক্তির কম্পিউটার দিয়ে আবিষ্কার করা যেতে পারছে নতুন ওষুধ। কোয়ান্টাম
সূত্রের ভিত্তিতে গড়ে তোলা যাচ্ছে এমন যোগাযোগ যা হ্যাক করা বা ভেদ করা কিছুতেই
সম্ভব নয়। সোজা কথায় কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তি আমাদের ভবিষ্যতকে অচিন্তনীয়ভাবে বদলে
দেয়া এবং বৈপ্লবিক রূপান্তর ঘটিয়ে দেয়ার প্রতিশ্রুতি নিয়ে এসেছে।
এখন কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তি বা কোয়ান্টাম পদার্থবিজ্ঞান সম্পর্কে এখানে
দুটি কথা বলে নেয়া ভাল। কোয়ান্টাম তত্ত্ব হলো পদার্থবিজ্ঞানের সেই অংশ যা থেকে
আমরা এটম যেসব জিনিস দিয়ে তৈরি সেই প্রোটন নিউট্রন ও ইলেক্ট্রন কিভাবে কাজ করে তা
জানতে পারি। শুধু তাই নয়, ইলেকট্রোম্যাগনিটিভ
ওয়েভ যেমন আলো কিভাবে কাজ করে তাও জানতে পারি। দ্বিতীয়ত ক্লাসিক্যাল মেকানিক্স বা
চিরায়ত বলবিদ্যায় সেখানে বলা হয় যে বস্তু একটি নির্দিষ্ট সময়ের একটি নির্দিষ্ট
স্থান বা অবস্থায় থাকে, সেখানে কোয়ান্টাম মেকানিক্স বলে
যে বস্তুর একটি নির্দিষ্ট সময়ে নানা ধরনের স্থান বা অবস্থান থাকার সম্ভাবনা থাকে।
যেমন একই সময় ‘ক’ বিন্দুতে থাকার
নির্দিষ্ট সম্ভাবনা থাকে আবার ‘খ’ বিন্দুতে থাকারও আরেক সম্ভাবনা থাকে। অর্থাৎ বস্তু বা বস্তুকণাগুলো হয়
এখানে বা সেখানে নয় বরং একই সঙ্গে এখানেও আছে ওখানেও আছে এবং বড়ই অদ্ভুতভাবে
পরস্পরের সঙ্গে যুক্ত হয়ে আছে। এর ফলে বস্তুকণার কোন একটির ক্ষেত্রে কিছু করা হলে
অন্যটি নিমেষের মধ্যে সেই পরিবর্তন অনুভব করতে পারে। এমনকি বিশাল স্থানের (ঝঢ়ধপব)
এ প্রান্ত থেকে ও প্রান্তেও পারে। বস্তুকণার এই পারস্পরিক যুক্ততা কোয়ান্টাম
তত্ত্বের উদ্ভাবকদের পর্যন্ত হতবুদ্ধি করে দিয়েছে।
বস্তুকণার এই অদ্ভুত বৈশিষ্ট্যগুলো বিশেষ করে এর আরোপণ ও পরস্পর
যুক্ততাকে কাজে লাগিয়ে আজ কোয়ান্টাম সূত্র বিস্ময়ের পর বিস্ময় সৃষ্টি করে চলেছে।
মানুষের কল্যাণে এই সূত্র ব্যবহারের অপার সম্ভাবনা সৃষ্টি হয়েছে। কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তি
প্রচলিত প্রযুক্তিকে ছাড়িয়ে বিশাল ব্যবধানে এগিয়ে যেতে পারে এবং এমন সব অসাধ্য
সাধন করতে পারে যা আগে কল্পনা করতে পারাও ছিল অসম্ভব।
প্রাকৃতিক জগতের সবকিছুই কোয়ান্টাম তত্ত্বে ব্যাখ্যা করা সম্ভব। এটম
বা অণু পরিসরে কি ঘটছে কোয়ান্টাম তত্ত্ব হলো তারই মৌলিক সূত্র। এই সূত্র লেজার
থেকে শুরু করে এমআরআই মেশিন পর্যন্ত দৈনন্দিন প্রযুক্তিগুলোর উন্নয়নের পথনির্দেশনা
যুগিয়েছে। ব্ল্যাক হোল বা কৃষ্ণগহ্বরের অভ্যন্তরভাগ কেমন এবং মহাবিশ্বের উষালগ্ন
কি রকম ছিল এমনি অজ্ঞেয় বিষয়গুলো জানার দৃঢ় ভিত্তি রচনা করেছে কোয়ান্টাম তত্ত্ব। এটম
বিভিন্ন সাইজের প্যাকেটেই কেবল এনার্জি ‘শুষে নেয় ও বিকীরণ করে’ এবং আলো ও পদার্থ কণা
এবং তরঙ্গ এই উভয়রূপেই কাজ করতে পারে- কোয়ান্টাম তত্ত্বের বদৌলতে এমনি গুটিকয়েক
নতুন আবিষ্কার আধুনিক পদার্থবিজ্ঞানের সবচেয়ে বড় সাফল্য।
আণবিক ঘড়ি
সবচেয়ে বড় কথা গত কয়েক দশকে কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তির ক্ষেত্রে যে
বিশেষজ্ঞ জ্ঞান অর্জিত হয়েছে এখন তার সুফল পাওয়া যেতে শুরু করেছে। তারই একটি হচ্ছে
এটমিক ওয়াচ বা আণবিক ঘড়ি। কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তির প্রথম যে পণ্যটা বাজারের মুখ
দেখেছে তা হলো আণবিক ঘড়ি। পরস্পর যুক্ততাকে (ঊহঃধহমষবসবহঃ) কাজে লাগিয়ে আজ এটমিক
ক্লক বা আণবিক ঘড়ির এমন উৎকর্ষ সাধন করা হয়েছে যে, সেগুলো আজ স্যাটেলাইট পজিশনিংয়ে ব্যবহৃত ঘড়ির
চেয়ে অনেকগুণ বেশি উন্নত ও নিখুঁত।
আধুনিক ঘড়ির মৌলিক ইউনিট হলো সেকেন্ড। সেই সেকেন্ডের সঠিক দৈর্ঘ্য
পরিমাপ করার লক্ষ্য নিয়েই আণবিক ঘড়ি উদ্ভাবিত। কেসিয়াম-১৩৩-এর একটি এটম
সুনির্দিষ্ট অবস্থায় এক পাক ঘুরে আসতে যে সময়টা নেয় ঠিক সেটাই হলো সেকেন্ডের
দৈর্ঘ্য।
এটমিক ঘড়ির সাহায্যে নেভিগেশনের কাজটা অনেক নিখুঁত হয়ে উঠেছে। যার
ফলে স্বয়ংচালিত গাড়ি আরও নিরাপদ ও নির্ভরযোগ্য হয়ে উঠবে। এই ঘড়ি আরও অনেক কিছু
করতে পারে। স্থানীয় মাধ্যাকর্ষণ শক্তির প্রভাব ও সময়ের প্রভাবের বদৌলতে এই ঘড়ি
মাধ্যাকর্ষণের ক্ষেত্রে অতি সামান্য তারতম্যও পরিমাপ করতে পারে। তার ফলে এই ঘড়ি
সাগরতরঙ্গের নিচে থাকা সাবমেরিনের সন্ধান বের করতে পারবে। ভূগর্ভের পাইপের হদিস
বের করার জন্যও এই ঘড়ি কাজে লাগানো যেতে পারে। ফলে রাস্তা খোঁড়াখুঁড়ির প্রয়োজন
হবে না।
তবে এটমিক ঘড়ির নির্ভুলতার ক্ষেত্রে কিছু তারতম্য লক্ষ্য করা গেছে
এবং সেজন্য এর সর্বক্ষণ উৎকর্ষ ঘটে চলেছে। এর প্রত্যাশিত ভ্রান্তির মাত্রা প্রায়
১০ কোটি বছরে এক সেকেন্ড। যুক্তরাষ্ট্রের কলরাডোর বোল্ডারে মার্কিন জাতীয় মেট্রোলজি
স্থাপনা এনআইএসটির এফ-১ ঘড়িটি বিশ্বের সবচেয়ে নিখুঁত সময় দেয়া ঘড়িগুলোর অন্যতম।
প্রতিষ্ঠানটির ডেভিড ওয়াইনল্যান্ড এই ঘড়ি আবিষ্কার করে ২০১২ সালে নোবেল পুরস্কার
পান। তার এই ঘড়ি যদি ১৩৮০ কোটি বছর আগে বিগব্যাংয়ের সময় চালু করে দেয়া যেত তাহলে
আজ অবধি সেকেন্ডের কাঁটায় কাঁটায় ওটা সঠিক সময় দিয়ে চলত।
শুধু নিখুঁত সময় দেয়া নয়, আণবিক ঘড়ির আরও নানাবিধ ব্যবহার আছে এবং সেটা কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তির অতি
‘স্পর্শকাতরতার’ কারণ। গ্লোবাল
পজিশনিং সিস্টেমে এর প্রয়োজন আছে। ফ্রিকোয়েন্সি ও সময়ের আদর্শ মানের ওপর দারুণভাবে
নির্ভরশীল ইন্টারনেটের জন্যও এই ঘড়ি প্রয়োজন।
আর হ্যাকিং নয়
কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তি যোগাযোগ নেটওয়ার্কেও বিপ্লব আনছে। ২০০৪ সালে
ব্যাংক অব অস্ট্রিয়া ও ভিয়েনা সিটি হলের মধ্যে প্রথম কোয়ান্টাম সাঙ্কেতিক ভাষায়
ব্যাংকিং লেনদেন বা অর্থের স্থানান্তর ঘটে। পরে এই প্রযুক্তি আরও অনেক ক্ষেত্রেও
উৎকর্ষের সঙ্গে ব্যবহার করা হয়। কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তি ব্যবহারকারীরা দাবি করেন যে, যোগাযোগের ক্ষেত্রে কোয়ান্টাম সঙ্কেতের ব্যবহার
অতি নিরাপদ। কেউ এতে আড়ি পাততে পারবে না। পাঠোদ্ধার করতে পারবে না। সঙ্কেত ভাঙতে
পারবে না। কোয়ান্টাম ক্রিপটোগ্রাফি ইদানীং ব্যাপক পরিসরে ব্যবহার হচ্ছে। তবে এর
ভবিষ্যতটা কোয়ান্টাম নেটওয়ার্কের মধ্যে নিহিত। কোয়ান্টাম নেটওয়ার্কের জন্য বহু
প্রেরক ও গ্রাহকের মধ্যে সংযোগ সাধন করা প্রয়োজন। বিশ্বের বড় বড় মেট্রোপলিটান
এলাকায় এমন নেটওয়ার্ক গড়ে উঠছে। তবে গত বছরের শেষদিকে চীনে যে কোয়ান্টাম নেটওয়ার্কের
কাজ সম্পন্ন হয়েছে সেটির মতো উচ্চাভিলাষী নেটওয়ার্ক আর কোনটাই নয়। এই নেটওয়ার্কের
গ্রাহকদের মধ্যে আছে চায়না ইন্ডাস্ট্রিয়াল এ্যান্ড কমার্শিয়াল ব্যাংক, চায়না ব্যাংকিং রেগুলেটরি কমিশন এবং সিনহুয়া নিউজ এজেন্সি।
গত বছরের ১৭ আগস্ট চীন বিশ্বের প্রথম কোয়ান্টাম যোগাযোগ স্যাটেলাইট
মহাশূন্যে ছেড়েছে। মিসিয়াস নামের এই কৃত্রিম উপগ্রহটির সাহায্যে চীন হ্যাক-প্রুফ
কোয়ান্টাম যোগাযোগের বিষয়ে পরীক্ষা-নিরীক্ষা চালাবে। প্রযুক্তিটা এখন শেষাবস্থায়
এবং এ মুহূর্তে যথেষ্ট ব্যয়বহুলও বটে। তবে দীর্ঘমেয়াদী বিচারে কোয়ান্টাম যোগাযোগ ব্যবস্থার
মাধ্যমে দীর্ঘ দূরত্ব জুড়ে বর্তমান ব্যবস্থার চাইতে অনেক বেশি নিরাপদে ড্যাটা বা
তথ্য-উপাত্ত পাঠানো যাবে।
কোয়ান্টাম স্যাটেলাইট কিভাবে কাজ করবে? তত্ত্বগতভাবে চীন স্বাভাবিক যোগাযোগ চ্যানেলের
মাধ্যমে এক স্থান থেকে অন্য স্থানে সাঙ্কেতিক বার্তা পাঠাবে। তারপর বার্তাটি
পাঠোদ্ধারের জন্য ‘কোয়ান্টাম চাবি’ সুনির্দিষ্ট কোয়ান্টাম পরিবেশে স্থাপিত ফোটনের আকারে স্যাটেলাইটে
পাঠাবে। স্যাটেলাইট তখন সেই কোয়ান্টাম চাবি বার্তা গ্রাহকের কাছে দেবে। এর ফলে
চাবিটি দেখতে পাওয়া, ট্যাগ করা বা হ্যাক করা কোয়ান্টাম
মেকানিক্সে ফোটনের ধর্মের কারণেই অনেক বেশি কঠিন হয়ে পড়বে। প্রেরণের সময় কোয়ান্টাম
‘কী’ দেখতে পাওয়ার যে কোন চেষ্টা
ব্যর্থ হবে অনিশ্চয়তাবাদ সূত্রের কারণে।
চীনের এই কোয়ান্টাম স্যাটেলাইট উৎক্ষেপণে সাহায্য-সমর্থন দিয়েছে
হুয়াওয়েই ও লেনোভোসহ টেক কোম্পাানিগুলো। আপাতত এর লক্ষ্য বেজিং সাংহাই নেটওয়ার্কের
প্রায় ৩ হাজার কিলোমিটার দূরে জিনজিয়াং প্রদেশের উরুমুকির সঙ্গে যুক্ত করা।
কোয়ান্টাম স্যাটেলাইট যোগাযোগ স্থাপনের চেষ্টা আমেরিকা, কানাডা, জাপান, ইতালি ও সিঙ্গাপুরেও চলছে। কোয়ান্টাম সিগন্যালগুলো ঝঞ্ঝাময় বায়ু,
মেঘমালা ইত্যাদির মধ্য দিয়ে মহাকাশে পৌঁছানোর চ্যালেঞ্জগুলো
কাটিয়ে ওঠা সম্ভব হলে বিশ্বব্যাপী কোয়ান্টাম যোগাযোগ নেটওয়ার্ক সহজেই গড়ে উঠতে
পারবে। আর দেশে দেশে এমনি কোয়ান্টাম যোগাযোগ স্যাটেলাইট সংযোগ থাকলে গ্লোবাল
কোয়ান্টাম ইন্টারনেট গড়ে ওঠাও সহজ হবে, যেখানে বাড়তি
নিরাপত্তা ও গোপনীয়তা রক্ষার ব্যবস্থা থাকবে।
কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটার
কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তি আরেক বিশাল সম্ভাবনা হাজির করেছে আমাদের সামনে।
সেটা হলো কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটার। প্রচলিত কম্পিউটার আর কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটারের মধ্যে
বিশাল ব্যবধান। প্রচলিত কম্পিউটার হলো এমন এক গ্যাজেট যার দ্বারা কম্পিউটারের বিবিধ
কাজ করা ছাড়াও ই-মেইল পাঠানো, অনলাইন শপিং করা, বন্ধুদের সঙ্গে চ্যাট করা ও
গেম খেলা যায়। এটা এমন এক মেশিন, যা দিয়ে আপনার পছন্দমতো
প্রায় সব কাজই করা যায়। কিন্তু অন্তর্নিহিতভাবে এটা একটা মৌলিক ক্যালকুলেটারের
চাইতে খুব বেশি কিছু নয়। এতে আগে থেকে বিন্যস্ত এক সেট নির্দেশাবলী থাকে, যাকে বলে প্রোগ্রাম। প্রচলিত কম্পিউটার দুটো কাজ বেশ ভালভাবে পারেÑ সংখ্যাকে স্মৃতিতে সংরক্ষণ করতে পারে এবং মজুত সংখ্যাকে যোগ-বিয়োগের
মতো সহজ গাণিতিক ক্রিয়ায় প্রসেস করতে পারে। সংখ্যাকে সংরক্ষণের সময় বাইনারির
ভিত্তিতে একটি কোড ব্যবহার করে করা হয়। প্রতিটি ‘শূন্য’
‘১’ কে বলা হয় বাইনারি ডিজিট বা বাইট
এবং আটটি বাইটের একটি সুতায় ২৫৫টি ভিন্ন ভিন্ন ক্যারেকটার মজুত করা যায়। কম্পিউটার
লজিক গেট নামে সার্কিট ব্যবহার করে হিসাব করে। সার্কিটগুলো পরস্পরের সঙ্গে যুক্ত
বেশ কিছু ট্রানজিস্টার দিয়ে তৈরি। আপনার যত বেশি তথ্য মজুত করা প্রয়োজন তত বেশি
বাইনারি ‘১’ ও ‘০’ এবং ট্রানজিস্টারের ব্যবস্থা আপনার থাকতে
হবে। বেশিরভাগ প্রচলিত কম্পিউটার যেহেতু একই সময় একটা কাজই কেবল করতে পারে,
তাই যত বেশি জটিল সমস্যার আপনি সমাধান করতে চাইবেন তত বেশি
পদক্ষেপ কম্পিউটারকে নিতে হবে এবং তত বেশি সময়ও কম্পিউটারের দরকার হবে। কিছু কিছু
সমস্যা এত বেশি জটিল যে, সেগুলো সমাধানের জন্য আরও অনেক
বেশি কম্পিউটিং ক্ষমতা ও সময় কম্পিউটারের থাকা দরকার, যা
আধুনিক অনেক মেশিনেরই নেই। কম্পিউটার বিজ্ঞানীদের ভাষায় এগুলো হলো বাগ মানানো যায়
না এমন সমস্যা।
এমন সমস্যা সমাধানের জন্য বিজ্ঞানীরা কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটারের দিকে
ঝুঁকেছেন। সাধারণ কম্পিউটারের যেমন বাইট, রেজিস্টার, লজিগ গেট, এলগোরিদম প্রভৃতি আছে তেমনি কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটারেরও সদৃশ বৈশিষ্ট্য
আছে। তবে বাইটের পরিবর্তে কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটারের আছে কোয়ান্টাম বাইট বা কিউবাইট,
যা বিচিত্র উপায়ে কাজ করে। সাধারণ কম্পিউটারে যেখানে একটা বাইট
হয় একটা ‘শূন্য’ নয়ত একটা ‘১’ সংরক্ষণ করতে পারে, সেখানে একটা কিউবাইট একটা শূন্য, একটা ১,
শূন্য ও ১ উভয়েই এবং এর মাঝামাঝি অসীম সংখ্যক মূল্য সংরক্ষণ করতে
পারে এবং একই সময় একাধিক অবস্থায় থাকতে পারে।
যেহেতু একটা কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটার একই সঙ্গে একাধিক বা বহু সংখ্যাকে
সংরক্ষণ করতে পারে, তাই
সেটি একই সঙ্গে সেই সংখ্যাগুলোকে প্রসেসও করতে পারে। অনুক্রমিকভাবে অর্থাৎ একটা
পরম্পরায় একই সময়ে একটা করে বেশ কিছু কাজ করার পরিবর্তে এটি সমান্তরালভাবে কাজ করতে
বা একই সময় বহু কিছু করতে পারে। হিসাব করে দেখা গেছে যে, একটা
কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটারের সমান্তরালভাবে কাজ করার ক্ষমতা থাকার কারণে সেটি প্রচলিত
কম্পিউটারের তুলনায় কয়েক মিলিয়ন গুণ বেশি গতিসম্পন্ন হবে। শুধু যদি সেটা তৈরি করতে
পারা যায়। এই কম্পিউটার এমন সব বিশাল বিশাল ও জটিল ধরনের ক্যালকুলেশন করতে পারবে,
যা করতে আজকের সেরা সুপার কম্পিউটারের সহস্র বছর লাগার কথা। তবে
এর সঙ্গে একটা উদ্বেগজনক ব্যাপারও আছে। কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটার আজকের কঠিন গাণিতিক
সমস্যার ওপর প্রতিষ্ঠিত ক্রিপটোগ্রাফিক কৌশলকে শেষ পর্যন্ত সেকেলে হিসেবে বাতিল
করে ফেলবে।
সেটা ঘটবার আগেই অবশ্য অপেক্ষাকৃত ছোটখাটো কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটার
জ্বালানি খাত থেকে শুরু করে লজিস্টিক্স, ওষুধের পরিকল্পনা ও অর্থলগ্নি পর্যন্ত শিল্পক্ষেত্রে অনন্য অবদান
রাখবে। এমনকি সহজ-সরল ধরনের কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটারেরও বিভিন্ন ধরনের সমস্যার সমাধান
করার কথা, যেগুলো সাধারণ কম্পিউটার করতে পারছে না। গুগল
জানিয়েছে যে, এ ধরনের কম্পিউটার বাণিজ্যিকভাবে
ব্যবহারযোগ্য হতে আর মাত্র পাঁচ বছর বাকি। হিউলেট প্যাকার্ড তাদের নিজস্ব
কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটার বের করার চেষ্টা করছে। ইন্টেল তার বিনিয়োগের একটা অংশ
কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটারের পেছনে ব্যয় করছে। মাইক্রোসফটের টপোলজিক্যাল কোয়ান্টাম কৌশল
যদি কাজ করে তাহলে সেটা অনেক কম ত্রুটিপূর্ণ হবে। কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটিং অনেক
স্টার্টআপও এগিয়ে আসছে। কানাডার কোম্পানি ‘ডি-ওয়েভ
সিস্টেমস্্’ তো সেই ২০১১ সাল থেকে বাণিজ্যিকভাবে প্রথম
কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটার বিক্রি শুরু করেছে। এই কম্পিউটার অবশ্য সর্বজনীন নয়, বরং বিশেষ উদ্দেশ্য সাধনে বিশেষ ধরনের কাজে সক্ষম। একে বলে কোয়ান্টাম
এপিলার। এই কোম্পানির খদ্দেরদের মধ্যে আছে লকহিড মার্টিন, গুগল ও নাসা।
বিস্ময়কর সফটওয়্যার আসবে
কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তি বিস্ময়কর সব সফটওয়্যার আগমনের ক্ষেত্র প্রস্তুত
করছে, যার ফল হবে অভাবনীয়। কোয়ান্টাম
কম্পিউটার তৈরি হয়ে বাজারে এলেই তো হবে না, সেটা যদি
প্রোগ্রাম করতে পারা না যায় তাহলে তো কোন লাভ নেই। গত দুই দশক ধরে কোয়ান্টাম
কম্পিউটার হার্ডওয়্যার তৈরির জোর উদ্যোগ চললেও মেশিন চালানোর জন্য যে সফটওয়্যারটি
দরকার, সেটি তৈরির চেষ্টাটা তুলনামূলকভাবে কম ছিল। তবে
সেই দৃশ্যপট বদলে যাচ্ছে। কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটার আসতে আর বেশি দেরি নেই এটা স্পষ্ট
হওয়ার পর দুটো উদ্যোগ সমান্তরালভাবে চলছে। একটা হচ্ছে সাধারণভাবে আমরা সফটওয়্যার
বলতে যা বুঝি যেমন গ্রাফিক্স ইন্টারফেস, প্রোগ্রামিং ল্যাঙ্গুয়েজ
ইত্যাদি তৈরি, যা হবে কিনা কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটারের জানালা।
অন্য উদ্যোগটা হলো অভিনব এলগোরিদম তৈরি, যেখানে কোয়ান্টাম
কম্পিউটিংয়ের উপযোগী করে সমস্যাগুলোকে বিভিন্ন অংশে ভাগ করে ফেলার জন্য ধাপে ধাপে
নির্দেশাবলী থাকবে।
দুটো ক্ষেত্রেই উদ্ভাবনী মেধা ও উদ্যোগের অভাব নেই। এর মধ্যে বড় বড়
ফার্ম যেমন আছে, তেমনি
আছে স্টার্টআপ।
কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তি কি আনতে পারে
প্রথম যখন আণবিক ঘড়ি তৈরি ও বাণিজ্যিকীকরণ হলো তখন কেউ কোয়ান্টাম
প্রযুক্তি কথাটা ব্যবহার করেনি। এই ঘড়ি উন্নততর ফলাফল লাভের জন্য কোয়ান্টাম
মোকানিক্সের শক্তিকেই স্রেফ কাজে লাগিয়েছিল। সে সময় কোয়ান্টাম মেকানিক্সের
ব্যবহারিক প্রয়োগ কি হতে পারে, সে সম্পর্কে অন্য আর কোন দৃষ্টান্ত ছিল না।
বর্তমানে কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তি যে বেগ সৃষ্টি করেছে তা ব্যাপক। জাতীয়
সরকার ও আন্তর্জাতিক সংস্থাগুলো এ সংক্রান্ত নানা গবেষণা উদ্যোগের পেছনে অর্থায়ন
করছে। কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তির অনেক সুবিধা আছে, যা বর্তমান ডিভাইসগুলোকে উন্নততর স্তরে নিয়ে যেতে পারে। এর গুটিকয়েক
গুরুত্বপূর্ণ প্রয়োগের ক্ষেত্র হলো :
সাব সার্ফেস ইমেজিং ॥ কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তি দ্রুত ও নিখুঁতভাবে
মাধ্যাকর্ষণের পরিমাপ করতে পারে বলে আপনার নিচের মাটির ঘনত্বের ছবি নেয়া সহজ। বড়
বড় নির্মাণ প্রকল্পের জন্য এটা জরুরী ও গুরুত্বপূর্ণ। তা ছাড়া এই প্রযুক্তির
ইমেজিং দিয়ে তেল, গ্যাস
ও খনিজ সম্পদের মজুতের ওপর নজরদারি এবং মাটির নিচে বিস্মৃত হয়ে যাওয়া অবকাঠামো বা
প্রতœতাত্ত্বিক ধ্বংসাবশেষ চিহ্নিত করা সহজ।
নেভিগেশন ॥ কোয়ান্টাম ডিভাইস স্যাটেলাইট ছাড়াই পানির নিচে বা অন্য
কোন বৈরী পরিবেশে ভালভাবে চলাচল সক্ষম করে তোলে।
কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তি প্রতিরক্ষা, এরোস্পেস, এনার্জি, স্বাস্থ্যখাত,
টেলিকমিউনিকেশন ও অর্থলগ্নি খাতের ওপর বড় ধরনের প্রভাব ফেলবে।
কম্পিউটার চালিত অস্ত্র ব্যবস্থা উত্তরোত্তর জটিল হয়ে উঠছে। যেমন এফ-৩৫ জয়েন্ট
স্ট্রাইক ফাইটার বিমানের পুরোপুরি পরিচালনযোগ্য হওয়ার জন্য এখন ২ কোটিরও বেশি
কোডলাইন প্রয়োজন। কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটারের প্রচ- শক্তি কোড ভ্যালিডেশনের দক্ষতা
বাড়িয়ে স্ট্র্যাটেজিক সুবিধা এনে দিতে পারে।
পুরনো ও ব্যয়বহুল গ্লোবাল পজিশনিং সিস্টেম (জিপিএস) উত্তরোত্তর
অনির্ভরযোগ্য ও বিপন্ন হয়ে পড়েছে। এটা সাবোটাজের শিকার হতে পারে। অন্যদিকে
কোয়ান্টাম লোকেশন প্রযুক্তি জ্যাম করা প্রায় অসম্ভব বলে ধারণা করা হচ্ছে। এটি
জিপিএসের তুলনায় এক হাজার গুণ নির্ভুল। কোয়ান্টাম প্রযুক্তি সবে তো যাত্রা শুরু
করেছে। এর অমিত সম্ভাবনার কিছুই এখন উন্মোচিত হয়নি। যখন সেই সম্ভাবনাময়
ক্ষমতাগুলোকে কাজে লাগানো যাবে তখন মানবজাতির সামনে কত কি যে বিস্ময় অপেক্ষা করবে, তা আর বলার নয়।
সূত্র : দি ইকোনমিস্ট
what is quantum mechanics ?
China’s Quantum Communications Trailblazer declared Operational after Stellar Performance
China’s Quantum Science Satellite was declared operational this week after five months of in-orbit testing, now set for a busy two-year mission demonstrating hack-proof communications by means of entangled photons as a trailblazer for what is widely considered the communications technology of the future.
The Quantum Science Satellite, nicknamed Mozi, was launched into orbit on August 15, 2016 as the world’s first dedicated quantum communications testbed, embarking on an ambitious mission dedicated to validating the principles of quantum communications across vast distances of open space.
Within two weeks of its successful launch, the 640-Kilogram satellite conducted its first communication tests, demonstrating that it is capable of engaging in quantum communications by creating entangled photon pairs over great distances.
Long exposure photos of the communication tests with the satellite were nothing short of spectacular with the satellite streaking across the sky, sending down a green laser beam, while the ground station beams up a red targeting beacon that ensures the 20-centimeter telescope on the satellite can remain locked on the ground station and vice versa, ensuring a continuous link while the satellite passes overhead.
The China Academy of Science announced on Wednesday that the Quantum Communications Satellite was officially declared operational after a complete testing program of the satellite’s payload and the space-to-ground links with different ground stations. According to CAS, everything aboard the satellite is working to specification and initial tests suggest that the performance of the quantum payload is much better than anticipated prior to launch.
Mozi has been named after Chinese scientist and philosopher Micius who, more than 2,000 years ago, made the discovery that light travels in straight lines.
During the initial portion of the mission, Mozi has made contact with four ground stations spread across the Chinese mainland. Mozi successfully connected the the Lijiang and Delingha ground stations via an uncrackable quantum link which, at a distance of nearly 1,200 Kilometers, set the record for the largest distance covered by quantum communications as the most advanced quantum networks on Earth only cover a few hundred Kilometers.
In a world where hacking stories make the news on a weekly basis, inherently secure communications are sought after by governments, corporations and private entities. Quantum Information Science is an emerging field driven by fascinating physics and many promising applications such as high-speed quantum computers and ultra-secure quantum communications.
Quantum Key Distribution, the exchange of cryptographic keys between two parties, is completed by means of correlated, or entangled photons – particles of light. The operators of the system share an encryption key encoded in the polarization of a string of entangled photons.
This communication between two parties is inherently secure because any attempt to eavesdrop on or tamper with the system would cause the quantum state of the entangled photons to collapse, immediately making the presence of a third party known to the rightful operators of the system.
The perfect security of quantum communications makes this technology attractive to national security entities and in some way, establishing reliable long-distance quantum communications represents the space race of the 21st century.
The working principle behind Mozi’s $100 million demonstration mission revolves around a crystal that generates pairs of entangled photons whose properties remain coupled to one another however far apart they are – as postulated in the theories of quantum mechanics. A high-fidelity optical communications system then delivers the partners of the entangled pair to ground stations in Vienna, Austria and Beijing, China where their polarization properties will be used to generate a secret encryption key.
Though theoretically possible over infinite distances, quantum communication tests on Earth have shown a big issue – light absorption and scattering in the optical medium carrying the photons, either optical fibers or the air-filled atmosphere. To date, these issues limited communications to only a few hundred Kilometers. A satellite relay system would eliminate these issues since absorption and scattering do not occur in the vacuum of space.
Mozi’s two-year primary mission is designed to gradually step up to more and more complex tests, starting out with relay of the quantum channel between two ground stations that are simultaneously in view of the satellite.
Once these basic proof-of-concept tests are complete, the satellite will take the role of a repeater to cover longer distances – sending up a beam of entangled photons from Beijing and then using the satellite to beam them back down to a Vienna ground station to establish the first long-distance quantum relay. Also, quantum teleportation will be attempted – using information on the properties of photons to recreate a quantum state in a different location.
China plans to develop a large constellation of quantum-based communications satellites to gain a leg-up on space-based eavesdroppers. This constellation, comprising up to 20 satellites, would generate a communications network with global space-to-ground communications coverage – a major step towards establishing a quantum internet.
The quantum internet, or a quantum computing cloud, would likely consist of a combination of a satellite and terrestrial network. However, a system of this type requires entangled photons to be created by different sources and inter-satellite quantum communications that are still in the more distant future. Also, data rates – currently expected to be in the megabit range – will have to be boosted to several gigabits per second to compete with traditional space-to-ground data links and optical communications using lasers
what is quantum mechanics ?
Quantum mechanics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with Quantum field theory.
For a more accessible and less technical introduction to this topic, see Introduction to quantum mechanics.
Quantum mechanics |
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Quantum mechanics (QM; also known as quantum physics or quantum theory), including quantum field theory, is a branch of physics which is the fundamental theory of nature at small scales and low energies of atoms and subatomic particles.[1] Classical physics, the physics existing before quantum mechanics, derives from quantum mechanics as an approximation valid only at large (macroscopic) scales. Quantum mechanics differs from classical physics in that energy, momentum and other quantities are often restricted to discrete values (quantization), objects have characteristics of both particles and waves (wave-particle duality), and there are limits to the precision with which quantities can be known (Uncertainty principle).
Quantum mechanics gradually arose from Max Planck's solution in 1900 to the black-body radiation problem (reported 1859) and Albert Einstein's 1905 paper which offered a quantum-based theory to explain the photoelectric effect (reported 1887). Early quantum theory was profoundly reconceived in the mid-1920s.
The reconceived theory is formulated in various specially developed mathematical formalisms. In one of them, a mathematical function, the wave function, provides information about the probability amplitude of position, momentum, and other physical properties of a particle.
Important applications of quantum theory[2] include quantum chemistry, superconducting magnets, light-emitting diodes, and the laser, the transistor and semiconductors such as the microprocessor, medical and research imaging such as magnetic resonance imaging and electron microscopy, and explanations for many biological and physical phenomena.[not verified in body]
History[edit]
Modern physics |
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Main article: History of quantum mechanics
Scientific inquiry into the wave nature of light began in the 17th and 18th centuries, when scientists such as Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens and Leonhard Euler proposed a wave theory of light based on experimental observations.[3] In 1803, Thomas Young, an English polymath, performed the famous double-slit experiment that he later described in a paper titled On the nature of light and colours. This experiment played a major role in the general acceptance of the wave theory of light.
In 1838, Michael Faraday discovered cathode rays. These studies were followed by the 1859 statement of the black-body radiation problem by Gustav Kirchhoff, the 1877 suggestion by Ludwig Boltzmann that the energy states of a physical system can be discrete, and the 1900 quantum hypothesis of Max Planck.[4] Planck's hypothesis that energy is radiated and absorbed in discrete "quanta" (or energy packets) precisely matched the observed patterns of black-body radiation.
In 1896, Wilhelm Wien empirically determined a distribution law of black-body radiation,[5] known as Wien's law in his honor. Ludwig Boltzmann independently arrived at this result by considerations of Maxwell's equations. However, it was valid only at high frequencies and underestimated the radiance at low frequencies. Later, Planck corrected this model using Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of thermodynamics and proposed what is now called Planck's law, which led to the development of quantum mechanics.
Following Max Planck's solution in 1900 to the black-body radiation problem (reported 1859), Albert Einstein offered a quantum-based theory to explain the photoelectric effect (1905, reported 1887). Around 1900-1910, the atomic theory and the corpuscular theory of light[6] first came to be widely accepted as scientific fact; these latter theories can be viewed as quantum theories of matter and electromagnetic radiation, respectively.
Among the first to study quantum phenomena in nature were Arthur Compton, C. V. Raman, and Pieter Zeeman, each of whom has a quantum effect named after him. Robert Andrews Millikan studied the photoelectric effect experimentally, and Albert Einstein developed a theory for it. At the same time, Ernest Rutherford experimentally discovered the nuclear model of the atom, for which Niels Bohr developed his theory of the atomic structure, which was later confirmed by the experiments of Henry Moseley. In 1913, Peter Debye extended Niels Bohr's theory of atomic structure, introducing elliptical orbits, a concept also introduced by Arnold Sommerfeld.[7] This phase is known as old quantum theory.
According to Planck, each energy element (E) is proportional to its frequency (ν):
- ,
where h is Planck's constant.
Planck cautiously insisted that this was simply an aspect of the processes of absorption and emission of radiation and had nothing to do with the physical reality of the radiation itself.[8]In fact, he considered his quantum hypothesis a mathematical trick to get the right answer rather than a sizable discovery.[9] However, in 1905 Albert Einstein interpreted Planck's quantum hypothesis realistically and used it to explain the photoelectric effect, in which shining light on certain materials can eject electrons from the material. He won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work.
Einstein further developed this idea to show that an electromagnetic wave such as light could also be described as a particle (later called the photon), with a discrete quantum of energy that was dependent on its frequency.[10]
The foundations of quantum mechanics were established during the first half of the 20th century by Max Planck, Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Louis de Broglie, Arthur Compton, Albert Einstein, Erwin Schrödinger, Max Born, John von Neumann, Paul Dirac, Enrico Fermi, Wolfgang Pauli, Max von Laue, Freeman Dyson, David Hilbert, Wilhelm Wien, Satyendra Nath Bose, Arnold Sommerfeld, and others. The Copenhagen interpretation of Niels Bohr became widely accepted.
In the mid-1920s, developments in quantum mechanics led to its becoming the standard formulation for atomic physics. In the summer of 1925, Bohr and Heisenberg published results that closed the old quantum theory. Out of deference to their particle-like behavior in certain processes and measurements, light quanta came to be called photons (1926). From Einstein's simple postulation was born a flurry of debating, theorizing, and testing. Thus, the entire field of quantum physics emerged, leading to its wider acceptance at the Fifth Solvay Conference in 1927.[citation needed]
It was found that subatomic particles and electromagnetic waves are neither simply particle nor wave but have certain properties of each. This originated the concept of wave–particle duality.[citation needed]
By 1930, quantum mechanics had been further unified and formalized by the work of David Hilbert, Paul Dirac and John von Neumann[11] with greater emphasis on measurement, the statistical nature of our knowledge of reality, and philosophical speculation about the 'observer'. It has since permeated many disciplines including quantum chemistry, quantum electronics, quantum optics, and quantum information science. Its speculative modern developments include string theory and quantum gravity theories. It also provides a useful framework for many features of the modern periodic table of elements, and describes the behaviors of atoms during chemical bonding and the flow of electrons in computer semiconductors, and therefore plays a crucial role in many modern technologies.[citation needed]
While quantum mechanics was constructed to describe the world of the very small, it is also needed to explain some macroscopic phenomena such as superconductors,[12] and superfluids.[13]
The word quantum derives from the Latin, meaning "how great" or "how much".[14] In quantum mechanics, it refers to a discrete unit assigned to certain physical quantities such as the energy of an atom at rest (see Figure 1). The discovery that particles are discrete packets of energy with wave-like properties led to the branch of physics dealing with atomic and subatomic systems which is today called quantum mechanics. It underlies the mathematical framework of many fields of physics and chemistry, including condensed matter physics, solid-state physics, atomic physics, molecular physics, computational physics, computational chemistry, quantum chemistry, particle physics, nuclear chemistry, and nuclear physics.[15][better source needed] Some fundamental aspects of the theory are still actively studied.[16]
Quantum mechanics is essential to understanding the behavior of systems at atomic length scales and smaller. If the physical nature of an atom were solely described by classical mechanics, electrons would not orbit the nucleus, since orbiting electrons emit radiation (due to circular motion) and would eventually collide with the nucleus due to this loss of energy. This framework was unable to explain the stability of atoms. Instead, electrons remain in an uncertain, non-deterministic, smeared, probabilistic wave–particle orbital about the nucleus, defying the traditional assumptions of classical mechanics and electromagnetism.[17]
Quantum mechanics was initially developed to provide a better explanation and description of the atom, especially the differences in the spectra of light emitted by different isotopes of the same chemical element, as well as subatomic particles. In short, the quantum-mechanical atomic model has succeeded spectacularly in the realm where classical mechanics and electromagnetism falter.
Broadly speaking, quantum mechanics incorporates four classes of phenomena for which classical physics cannot account:
- quantization of certain physical properties
- quantum entanglement
- principle of uncertainty
- wave–particle duality
Mathematical formulations[edit]
Main article: Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics
See also: Quantum logic
In the mathematically rigorous formulation of quantum mechanics developed by Paul Dirac,[18] David Hilbert,[19] John von Neumann,[20] and Hermann Weyl,[21] the possible states of a quantum mechanical system are symbolized[22] as unit vectors (called state vectors). Formally, these reside in a complex separable Hilbert space—variously called the state space or the associated Hilbert space of the system—that is well defined up to a complex number of norm 1 (the phase factor). In other words, the possible states are points in the projective space of a Hilbert space, usually called the complex projective space. The exact nature of this Hilbert space is dependent on the system—for example, the state space for position and momentum states is the space of square-integrable functions, while the state space for the spin of a single proton is just the product of two complex planes. Each observable is represented by a maximally Hermitian (precisely: by a self-adjoint) linear operator acting on the state space. Each eigenstate of an observable corresponds to an eigenvector of the operator, and the associated eigenvalue corresponds to the value of the observable in that eigenstate. If the operator's spectrum is discrete, the observable can attain only those discrete eigenvalues.
In the formalism of quantum mechanics, the state of a system at a given time is described by a complex wave function, also referred to as state vector in a complex vector space.[23] This abstract mathematical object allows for the calculation of probabilities of outcomes of concrete experiments. For example, it allows one to compute the probability of finding an electron in a particular region around the nucleus at a particular time. Contrary to classical mechanics, one can never make simultaneous predictions of conjugate variables, such as position and momentum, to arbitrary precision. For instance, electrons may be considered (to a certain probability) to be located somewhere within a given region of space, but with their exact positions unknown. Contours of constant probability, often referred to as "clouds", may be drawn around the nucleus of an atom to conceptualize where the electron might be located with the most probability. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle quantifies the inability to precisely locate the particle given its conjugate momentum.[24]
According to one interpretation, as the result of a measurement the wave function containing the probability information for a system collapses from a given initial state to a particular eigenstate. The possible results of a measurement are the eigenvalues of the operator representing the observable—which explains the choice of Hermitian operators, for which all the eigenvalues are real. The probability distribution of an observable in a given state can be found by computing the spectral decomposition of the corresponding operator. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle is represented by the statement that the operators corresponding to certain observables do not commute.
The probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics thus stems from the act of measurement. This is one of the most difficult aspects of quantum systems to understand. It was the central topic in the famous Bohr–Einstein debates, in which the two scientists attempted to clarify these fundamental principles by way of thought experiments. In the decades after the formulation of quantum mechanics, the question of what constitutes a "measurement" has been extensively studied. Newer interpretations of quantum mechanics have been formulated that do away with the concept of "wave function collapse" (see, for example, the relative state interpretation). The basic idea is that when a quantum system interacts with a measuring apparatus, their respective wave functions become entangled, so that the original quantum system ceases to exist as an independent entity. For details, see the article on measurement in quantum mechanics.[25]
Generally, quantum mechanics does not assign definite values. Instead, it makes a prediction using a probability distribution; that is, it describes the probability of obtaining the possible outcomes from measuring an observable. Often these results are skewed by many causes, such as dense probability clouds. Probability clouds are approximate (but better than the Bohr model) whereby electron location is given by a probability function, the wave function eigenvalue, such that the probability is the squared modulus of the complex amplitude, or quantum state nuclear attraction.[26][27] Naturally, these probabilities will depend on the quantum state at the "instant" of the measurement. Hence, uncertainty is involved in the value. There are, however, certain states that are associated with a definite value of a particular observable. These are known as eigenstates of the observable ("eigen" can be translated from German as meaning "inherent" or "characteristic").[28]
In the everyday world, it is natural and intuitive to think of everything (every observable) as being in an eigenstate. Everything appears to have a definite position, a definite momentum, a definite energy, and a definite time of occurrence. However, quantum mechanics does not pinpoint the exact values of a particle's position and momentum (since they are conjugate pairs) or its energy and time (since they too are conjugate pairs); rather, it provides only a range of probabilities in which that particle might be given its momentum and momentum probability. Therefore, it is helpful to use different words to describe states having uncertain values and states having definite values (eigenstates). Usually, a system will not be in an eigenstate of the observable (particle) we are interested in. However, if one measures the observable, the wave function will instantaneously be an eigenstate (or "generalized" eigenstate) of that observable. This process is known as wave function collapse, a controversial and much-debated process[29] that involves expanding the system under study to include the measurement device. If one knows the corresponding wave function at the instant before the measurement, one will be able to compute the probability of the wave function collapsing into each of the possible eigenstates. For example, the free particle in the previous example will usually have a wave function that is a wave packet centered around some mean position x0 (neither an eigenstate of position nor of momentum). When one measures the position of the particle, it is impossible to predict with certainty the result.[25] It is probable, but not certain, that it will be near x0, where the amplitude of the wave function is large. After the measurement is performed, having obtained some result x, the wave function collapses into a position eigenstate centered at x.[30]
The time evolution of a quantum state is described by the Schrödinger equation, in which the Hamiltonian (the operator corresponding to the total energy of the system) generates the time evolution. The time evolution of wave functions is deterministic in the sense that - given a wave function at an initial time - it makes a definite prediction of what the wave function will be at any later time.[31]
During a measurement, on the other hand, the change of the initial wave function into another, later wave function is not deterministic, it is unpredictable (i.e., random). A time-evolution simulation can be seen here.[32][33]
Wave functions change as time progresses. The Schrödinger equation describes how wave functions change in time, playing a role similar to Newton's second law in classical mechanics. The Schrödinger equation, applied to the aforementioned example of the free particle, predicts that the center of a wave packet will move through space at a constant velocity (like a classical particle with no forces acting on it). However, the wave packet will also spread out as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more uncertain with time. This also has the effect of turning a position eigenstate (which can be thought of as an infinitely sharp wave packet) into a broadened wave packet that no longer represents a (definite, certain) position eigenstate.[34]
Some wave functions produce probability distributions that are constant, or independent of time—such as when in a stationary state of constant energy, time vanishes in the absolute square of the wave function. Many systems that are treated dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such "static" wave functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcited atom is pictured classically as a particle moving in a circular trajectory around the atomic nucleus, whereas in quantum mechanics it is described by a static, spherically symmetric wave function surrounding the nucleus (Fig. 1) (note, however, that only the lowest angular momentum states, labeled s, are spherically symmetric).[35]
The Schrödinger equation acts on the entire probability amplitude, not merely its absolute value. Whereas the absolute value of the probability amplitude encodes information about probabilities, its phase encodes information about the interference between quantum states. This gives rise to the "wave-like" behavior of quantum states. As it turns out, analytic solutions of the Schrödinger equation are available for only a very small number of relatively simple model Hamiltonians, of which the quantum harmonic oscillator, the particle in a box, the dihydrogen cation, and the hydrogen atom are the most important representatives. Even the helium atom—which contains just one more electron than does the hydrogen atom—has defied all attempts at a fully analytic treatment.
There exist several techniques for generating approximate solutions, however. In the important method known as perturbation theory, one uses the analytic result for a simple quantum mechanical model to generate a result for a more complicated model that is related to the simpler model by (for one example) the addition of a weak potential energy. Another method is the "semi-classical equation of motion" approach, which applies to systems for which quantum mechanics produces only weak (small) deviations from classical behavior. These deviations can then be computed based on the classical motion. This approach is particularly important in the field of quantum chaos.
Mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics[edit]
There are numerous mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics. One of the oldest and most commonly used formulations is the "transformation theory" proposed by Paul Dirac, which unifies and generalizes the two earliest formulations of quantum mechanics - matrix mechanics (invented by Werner Heisenberg) and wave mechanics (invented by Erwin Schrödinger).[36]
Especially since Werner Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932 for the creation of quantum mechanics, the role of Max Born in the development of QM was overlooked until the 1954 Nobel award. The role is noted in a 2005 biography of Born, which recounts his role in the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics, and the use of probability amplitudes. Heisenberg himself acknowledges having learned matrices from Born, as published in a 1940 festschrift honoring Max Planck.[37] In the matrix formulation, the instantaneous state of a quantum system encodes the probabilities of its measurable properties, or "observables". Examples of observables include energy, position, momentum, and angular momentum. Observables can be either continuous (e.g., the position of a particle) or discrete (e.g., the energy of an electron bound to a hydrogen atom).[38] An alternative formulation of quantum mechanics is Feynman's path integral formulation, in which a quantum-mechanical amplitude is considered as a sum over all possible classical and non-classical paths between the initial and final states. This is the quantum-mechanical counterpart of the action principle in classical mechanics.
Interactions with other scientific theories[edit]
The rules of quantum mechanics are fundamental. They assert that the state space of a system is a Hilbert space and that observables of that system are Hermitian operators acting on that space—although they do not tell us which Hilbert space or which operators. These can be chosen appropriately in order to obtain a quantitative description of a quantum system. An important guide for making these choices is the correspondence principle, which states that the predictions of quantum mechanics reduce to those of classical mechanics when a system moves to higher energies or, equivalently, larger quantum numbers, i.e. whereas a single particle exhibits a degree of randomness, in systems incorporating millions of particles averaging takes over and, at the high energy limit, the statistical probability of random behaviour approaches zero. In other words, classical mechanics is simply a quantum mechanics of large systems. This "high energy" limit is known as the classical or correspondence limit. One can even start from an established classical model of a particular system, then attempt to guess the underlying quantum model that would give rise to the classical model in the correspondence limit.
Unsolved problem in physics:
In the correspondence limit of quantum mechanics: Is there a preferred interpretation of quantum mechanics? How does the quantum description of reality, which includes elements such as the "superposition of states" and "wave function collapse", give rise to the reality we perceive?
(more unsolved problems in physics) |
When quantum mechanics was originally formulated, it was applied to models whose correspondence limit was non-relativistic classical mechanics. For instance, the well-known model of the quantum harmonic oscillator uses an explicitly non-relativistic expression for the kinetic energy of the oscillator, and is thus a quantum version of the classical harmonic oscillator.
Early attempts to merge quantum mechanics with special relativity involved the replacement of the Schrödinger equation with a covariant equation such as the Klein–Gordon equation or the Dirac equation. While these theories were successful in explaining many experimental results, they had certain unsatisfactory qualities stemming from their neglect of the relativistic creation and annihilation of particles. A fully relativistic quantum theory required the development of quantum field theory, which applies quantization to a field (rather than a fixed set of particles). The first complete quantum field theory, quantum electrodynamics, provides a fully quantum description of the electromagnetic interaction. The full apparatus of quantum field theory is often unnecessary for describing electrodynamic systems. A simpler approach, one that has been employed since the inception of quantum mechanics, is to treat charged particles as quantum mechanical objects being acted on by a classical electromagnetic field. For example, the elementary quantum model of the hydrogen atom describes the electric field of the hydrogen atom using a classical Coulomb potential. This "semi-classical" approach fails if quantum fluctuations in the electromagnetic field play an important role, such as in the emission of photons by charged particles.
Quantum field theories for the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force have also been developed. The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is called quantum chromodynamics, and describes the interactions of subnuclear particles such as quarks and gluons. The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force were unified, in their quantized forms, into a single quantum field theory (known as electroweak theory), by the physicists Abdus Salam, Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg. These three men shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979 for this work.[39]
It has proven difficult to construct quantum models of gravity, the remaining fundamental force. Semi-classical approximations are workable, and have led to predictions such as Hawking radiation. However, the formulation of a complete theory of quantum gravity is hindered by apparent incompatibilities between general relativity (the most accurate theory of gravity currently known) and some of the fundamental assumptions of quantum theory. The resolution of these incompatibilities is an area of active research, and theories such as string theory are among the possible candidates for a future theory of quantum gravity.
Classical mechanics has also been extended into the complex domain, with complex classical mechanics exhibiting behaviors similar to quantum mechanics.[40]
Quantum mechanics and classical physics[edit]
Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified experimentally to an extremely high degree of accuracy.[41] According to the correspondence principle between classical and quantum mechanics, all objects obey the laws of quantum mechanics, and classical mechanics is just an approximation for large systems of objects (or a statistical quantum mechanics of a large collection of particles).[42] The laws of classical mechanics thus follow from the laws of quantum mechanics as a statistical average at the limit of large systems or large quantum numbers.[43] However, chaotic systems do not have good quantum numbers, and quantum chaos studies the relationship between classical and quantum descriptions in these systems.
Quantum coherence is an essential difference between classical and quantum theories as illustrated by the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) paradox — an attack on a certain philosophical interpretation of quantum mechanics by an appeal to local realism.[44] Quantum interference involves adding together probability amplitudes, whereas classical "waves" infer that there is an adding together of intensities. For microscopic bodies, the extension of the system is much smaller than the coherence length, which gives rise to long-range entanglement and other nonlocal phenomena characteristic of quantum systems.[45] Quantum coherence is not typically evident at macroscopic scales, though an exception to this rule may occur at extremely low temperatures (i.e. approaching absolute zero) at which quantum behavior may manifest itself macroscopically.[46] This is in accordance with the following observations:
- Many macroscopic properties of a classical system are a direct consequence of the quantum behavior of its parts. For example, the stability of bulk matter (consisting of atoms and molecules which would quickly collapse under electric forces alone), the rigidity of solids, and the mechanical, thermal, chemical, optical and magnetic properties of matter are all results of the interaction of electric charges under the rules of quantum mechanics.[47]
- While the seemingly "exotic" behavior of matter posited by quantum mechanics and relativity theory become more apparent when dealing with particles of extremely small size or velocities approaching the speed of light, the laws of classical, often considered "Newtonian", physics remain accurate in predicting the behavior of the vast majority of "large" objects (on the order of the size of large molecules or bigger) at velocities much smaller than the velocity of light.[48]
Copenhagen interpretation of quantum versus classical kinematics[edit]
A big difference between classical and quantum mechanics is that they use very different kinematic descriptions.[49]
In Niels Bohr's mature view, quantum mechanical phenomena are required to be experiments, with complete descriptions of all the devices for the system, preparative, intermediary, and finally measuring. The descriptions are in macroscopic terms, expressed in ordinary language, supplemented with the concepts of classical mechanics.[50][51][52][53] The initial condition and the final condition of the system are respectively described by values in a configuration space, for example a position space, or some equivalent space such as a momentum space. Quantum mechanics does not admit a completely precise description, in terms of both position and momentum, of an initial condition or "state" (in the classical sense of the word) that would support a precisely deterministic and causal prediction of a final condition.[54][55] In this sense, advocated by Bohr in his mature writings, a quantum phenomenon is a process, a passage from initial to final condition, not an instantaneous "state" in the classical sense of that word.[56][57] Thus there are two kinds of processes in quantum mechanics: stationary and transitional. For a stationary process, the initial and final condition are the same. For a transition, they are different. Obviously by definition, if only the initial condition is given, the process is not determined.[54] Given its initial condition, prediction of its final condition is possible, causally but only probabilistically, because the Schrödinger equation is deterministic for wave function evolution, but the wave function describes the system only probabilistically.[58][59]
For many experiments, it is possible to think of the initial and final conditions of the system as being a particle. In some cases it appears that there are potentially several spatially distinct pathways or trajectories by which a particle might pass from initial to final condition. It is an important feature of the quantum kinematic description that it does not permit a unique definite statement of which of those pathways is actually followed. Only the initial and final conditions are definite, and, as stated in the foregoing paragraph, they are defined only as precisely as allowed by the configuration space description or its equivalent. In every case for which a quantum kinematic description is needed, there is always a compelling reason for this restriction of kinematic precision. An example of such a reason is that for a particle to be experimentally found in a definite position, it must be held motionless; for it to be experimentally found to have a definite momentum, it must have free motion; these two are logically incompatible.[60][61]
Classical kinematics does not primarily demand experimental description of its phenomena. It allows completely precise description of an instantaneous state by a value in phase space, the Cartesian product of configuration and momentum spaces. This description simply assumes or imagines a state as a physically existing entity without concern about its experimental measurability. Such a description of an initial condition, together with Newton's laws of motion, allows a precise deterministic and causal prediction of a final condition, with a definite trajectory of passage. Hamiltonian dynamics can be used for this. Classical kinematics also allows the description of a process analogous to the initial and final condition description used by quantum mechanics. Lagrangian mechanics applies to this.[62] For processes that need account to be taken of actions of a small number of Planck constants, classical kinematics is not adequate; quantum mechanics is needed.
General relativity and quantum mechanics[edit]
Even with the defining postulates of both Einstein's theory of general relativity and quantum theory being indisputably supported by rigorous and repeated empirical evidence, and while they do not directly contradict each other theoretically (at least with regard to their primary claims), they have proven extremely difficult to incorporate into one consistent, cohesive model.[63]
Gravity is negligible in many areas of particle physics, so that unification between general relativity and quantum mechanics is not an urgent issue in those particular applications. However, the lack of a correct theory of quantum gravity is an important issue in physical cosmology and the search by physicists for an elegant "Theory of Everything" (TOE). Consequently, resolving the inconsistencies between both theories has been a major goal of 20th and 21st century physics. Many prominent physicists, including Stephen Hawking, have labored for many years in the attempt to discover a theory underlying everything. This TOE would combine not only the different models of subatomic physics, but also derive the four fundamental forces of nature - the strong force, electromagnetism, the weak force, and gravity - from a single force or phenomenon. While Stephen Hawking was initially a believer in the Theory of Everything, after considering Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem, he has concluded that one is not obtainable, and has stated so publicly in his lecture "Gödel and the End of Physics" (2002).[64]
Attempts at a unified field theory[edit]
Main article: Grand unified theory
The quest to unify the fundamental forces through quantum mechanics is still ongoing. Quantum electrodynamics (or "quantum electromagnetism"), which is currently (in the perturbative regime at least) the most accurately tested physical theory in competition with general relativity,[65][66] has been successfully merged with the weak nuclear force into the electroweak force and work is currently being done to merge the electroweak and strong force into the electrostrong force. Current predictions state that at around 1014 GeV the three aforementioned forces are fused into a single unified field.[67] Beyond this "grand unification", it is speculated that it may be possible to merge gravity with the other three gauge symmetries, expected to occur at roughly 1019 GeV. However — and while special relativity is parsimoniously incorporated into quantum electrodynamics — the expanded general relativity, currently the best theory describing the gravitation force, has not been fully incorporated into quantum theory. One of those searching for a coherent TOE is Edward Witten, a theoretical physicist who formulated the M-theory, which is an attempt at describing the supersymmetrical based string theory. M-theory posits that our apparent 4-dimensional spacetime is, in reality, actually an 11-dimensional spacetime containing 10 spatial dimensions and 1 time dimension, although 7 of the spatial dimensions are - at lower energies - completely "compactified" (or infinitely curved) and not readily amenable to measurement or probing.
Another popular theory is Loop quantum gravity (LQG), a theory first proposed by Carlo Rovelli that describes the quantum properties of gravity. It is also a theory of quantum space and quantum time, because in general relativity the geometry of spacetime is a manifestation of gravity. LQG is an attempt to merge and adapt standard quantum mechanics and standard general relativity. The main output of the theory is a physical picture of space where space is granular. The granularity is a direct consequence of the quantization. It has the same nature of the granularity of the photons in the quantum theory of electromagnetism or the discrete levels of the energy of the atoms. But here it is space itself which is discrete. More precisely, space can be viewed as an extremely fine fabric or network "woven" of finite loops. These networks of loops are called spin networks. The evolution of a spin network over time is called a spin foam. The predicted size of this structure is the Planck length, which is approximately 1.616×10−35 m. According to theory, there is no meaning to length shorter than this (cf. Planck scale energy). Therefore, LQG predicts that not just matter, but also space itself, has an atomic structure.
Philosophical implications[edit]
Main article: Interpretations of quantum mechanics
Since its inception, the many counter-intuitive aspects and results of quantum mechanics have provoked strong philosophical debates and many interpretations. Even fundamental issues, such as Max Born's basic rules concerning probability amplitudes and probability distributions, took decades to be appreciated by society and many leading scientists. Richard Feynman once said, "I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics."[68] According to Steven Weinberg, "There is now in my opinion no entirely satisfactory interpretation of quantum mechanics."[69]
The Copenhagen interpretation — due largely to Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg — remains most widely accepted amongst physicists, some 75 years after its enunciation. According to this interpretation, the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics is not a temporary feature which will eventually be replaced by a deterministic theory, but instead must be considered a final renunciation of the classical idea of "causality." It is also believed therein that any well-defined application of the quantum mechanical formalism must always make reference to the experimental arrangement, due to the conjugate nature of evidence obtained under different experimental situations.
Albert Einstein, himself one of the founders of quantum theory, did not accept some of the more philosophical or metaphysical interpretations of quantum mechanics, such as rejection of determinism and of causality. He is famously quoted as saying, in response to this aspect, "God does not play with dice".[70] He rejected the concept that the state of a physical system depends on the experimental arrangement for its measurement. He held that a state of nature occurs in its own right, regardless of whether or how it might be observed. In that view, he is supported by the currently accepted definition of a quantum state, which remains invariant under arbitrary choice of configuration space for its representation, that is to say, manner of observation. He also held that underlying quantum mechanics there should be a theory that thoroughly and directly expresses the rule against action at a distance; in other words, he insisted on the principle of locality. He considered, but rejected on theoretical grounds, a particular proposal for hidden variables to obviate the indeterminism or acausality of quantum mechanical measurement. He considered that quantum mechanics was a currently valid but not a permanently definitive theory for quantum phenomena. He thought its future replacement would require profound conceptual advances, and would not come quickly or easily. The Bohr-Einstein debates provide a vibrant critique of the Copenhagen Interpretation from an epistemological point of view. In arguing for his views, he produced a series of objections, the most famous of which has become known as the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox.
John Bell showed that this "EPR" paradox led to experimentally testable differences between quantum mechanics and theories that rely on added hidden variables. Experiments have been performed confirming the accuracy of quantum mechanics, thereby demonstrating that quantum mechanics cannot be improved upon by addition of hidden variables.[71] Alain Aspect's initial experiments in 1982, and many subsequent experiments since, have definitively verified quantum entanglement.
Entanglement, as demonstrated in Bell-type experiments, does not, however, violate causality, since no transfer of information happens. Quantum entanglement forms the basis of quantum cryptography, which is proposed for use in high-security commercial applications in banking and government.
The Everett many-worlds interpretation, formulated in 1956, holds that all the possibilities described by quantum theory simultaneously occur in a multiverse composed of mostly independent parallel universes.[72]This is not accomplished by introducing some "new axiom" to quantum mechanics, but on the contrary, by removing the axiom of the collapse of the wave packet. All of the possible consistent states of the measured system and the measuring apparatus (including the observer) are present in a real physical - not just formally mathematical, as in other interpretations - quantum superposition. Such a superposition of consistent state combinations of different systems is called an entangled state. While the multiverse is deterministic, we perceive non-deterministic behavior governed by probabilities, because we can only observe the universe (i.e., the consistent state contribution to the aforementioned superposition) that we, as observers, inhabit. Everett's interpretation is perfectly consistent with John Bell's experiments and makes them intuitively understandable. However, according to the theory of quantum decoherence, these "parallel universes" will never be accessible to us. The inaccessibility can be understood as follows: once a measurement is done, the measured system becomes entangled with both the physicist who measured it and a huge number of other particles, some of which are photons flying away at the speed of light towards the other end of the universe. In order to prove that the wave function did not collapse, one would have to bring all these particles back and measure them again, together with the system that was originally measured. Not only is this completely impractical, but even if one could theoretically do this, it would have to destroy any evidence that the original measurement took place (including the physicist's memory). In light of these Bell tests, Cramer (1986) formulated his transactional interpretation.[73] Relational quantum mechanics appeared in the late 1990s as the modern derivative of the Copenhagen Interpretation.
Applications[edit]
Quantum mechanics has had enormous[74] success in explaining many of the features of our universe. Quantum mechanics is often the only tool available that can reveal the individual behaviors of the subatomic particles that make up all forms of matter (electrons, protons, neutrons, photons, and others). Quantum mechanics has strongly influenced string theories, candidates for a Theory of Everything (see reductionism).
Quantum mechanics is also critically important for understanding how individual atoms combine covalently to form molecules. The application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is known as quantum chemistry. Relativistic quantum mechanics can, in principle, mathematically describe most of chemistry. Quantum mechanics can also provide quantitative insight into ionic and covalent bonding processes by explicitly showing which molecules are energetically favorable to which others and the magnitudes of the energies involved.[75] Furthermore, most of the calculations performed in modern computational chemistry rely on quantum mechanics.
In many aspects modern technology operates at a scale where quantum effects are significant.
Electronics[edit]
Many modern electronic devices are designed using quantum mechanics. Examples include the laser, the transistor (and thus the microchip), the electron microscope, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The study of semiconductors led to the invention of the diode and the transistor, which are indispensable parts of modern electronics systems, computer and telecommunication devices. Another application is the light emitting diode which is a high-efficiency source of light.
Many electronic devices operate under effect of quantum tunneling. It even exists in the simple light switch. The switch would not work if electrons could not quantum tunnel through the layer of oxidation on the metal contact surfaces. Flash memory chips found in USB drives use quantum tunneling to erase their memory cells. Some negative differential resistance devices also utilizes quantum tunneling effect, such as resonant tunneling diode. Unlike classical diodes, its current is carried by resonant tunneling through two potential barriers (see right figure). Its negative resistance behavior can only be understood with quantum mechanics: As the confined state moves close to Fermi level, tunnel current increases. As it moves away, current decreases. Quantum mechanics is vital to understanding and designing such electronic devices.
Cryptography[edit]
Researchers are currently seeking robust methods of directly manipulating quantum states. Efforts are being made to more fully develop quantum cryptography, which will theoretically allow guaranteed secure transmission of information.
Quantum computing[edit]
A more distant goal is the development of quantum computers, which are expected to perform certain computational tasks exponentially faster than classical computers. Instead of using classical bits, quantum computers use qubits, which can be in superpositions of states. Another active research topic is quantum teleportation, which deals with techniques to transmit quantum information over arbitrary distances.
Macroscale quantum effects[edit]
While quantum mechanics primarily applies to the smaller atomic regimes of matter and energy, some systems exhibit quantum mechanical effects on a large scale. Superfluidity, the frictionless flow of a liquid at temperatures near absolute zero, is one well-known example. So is the closely related phenomenon of superconductivity, the frictionless flow of an electron gas in a conducting material (an electric current) at sufficiently low temperatures. The fractional quantum hall effect is a topological ordered state which corresponds to patterns of long-range quantum entanglement.[76] States with different topological orders (or different patterns of long range entanglements) cannot change into each other without a phase transition.
Quantum theory[edit]
Quantum theory also provides accurate descriptions for many previously unexplained phenomena, such as black-body radiation and the stability of the orbitals of electrons in atoms. It has also given insight into the workings of many different biological systems, including smell receptors and protein structures.[77] Recent work on photosynthesis has provided evidence that quantum correlations play an essential role in this fundamental process of plants and many other organisms.[78] Even so, classical physics can often provide good approximations to results otherwise obtained by quantum physics, typically in circumstances with large numbers of particles or large quantum numbers. Since classical formulas are much simpler and easier to compute than quantum formulas, classical approximations are used and preferred when the system is large enough to render the effects of quantum mechanics insignificant.
Examples[edit]
Free particle[edit]
For example, consider a free particle. In quantum mechanics, there is wave–particle duality, so the properties of the particle can be described as the properties of a wave. Therefore, its quantum state can be represented as a wave of arbitrary shape and extending over space as a wave function. The position and momentum of the particle are observables. The Uncertainty Principle states that both the position and the momentum cannot simultaneously be measured with complete precision. However, one can measure the position (alone) of a moving free particle, creating an eigenstate of position with a wave function that is very large (a Dirac delta) at a particular position x, and zero everywhere else. If one performs a position measurement on such a wave function, the resultant x will be obtained with 100% probability (i.e., with full certainty, or complete precision). This is called an eigenstate of position—or, stated in mathematical terms, a generalized position eigenstate (eigendistribution). If the particle is in an eigenstate of position, then its momentum is completely unknown. On the other hand, if the particle is in an eigenstate of momentum, then its position is completely unknown.[79] In an eigenstate of momentum having a plane wave form, it can be shown that the wavelength is equal to h/p, where h is Planck's constant and p is the momentum of the eigenstate.[80]
Step potential[edit]
Main article: Solution of Schrödinger equation for a step potential
The potential in this case is given by:
The solutions are superpositions of left- and right-moving waves:
where the wave vectors are related to the energy via
- , and
with coefficients A and B determined from the boundary conditions and by imposing a continuous derivative on the solution.
Each term of the solution can be interpreted as an incident, reflected, or transmitted component of the wave, allowing the calculation of transmission and reflection coefficients. Notably, in contrast to classical mechanics, incident particles with energies greater than the potential step are partially reflected.
Rectangular potential barrier[edit]
Main article: Rectangular potential barrier
This is a model for the quantum tunneling effect which plays an important role in the performance of modern technologies such as flash memory and scanning tunneling microscopy. Quantum tunneling is central to physical phenomena involved in superlattices.
Particle in a box[edit]
Main article: Particle in a box
The particle in a one-dimensional potential energy box is the most mathematically simple example where restraints lead to the quantization of energy levels. The box is defined as having zero potential energy everywhere inside a certain region, and infinite potential energy everywhere outside that region. For the one-dimensional case in the direction, the time-independent Schrödinger equation may be written[81]
With the differential operator defined by
the previous equation is evocative of the classic kinetic energy analogue,
with state in this case having energy coincident with the kinetic energy of the particle.
The general solutions of the Schrödinger equation for the particle in a box are
or, from Euler's formula,
The infinite potential walls of the box determine the values of C, D, and k at x = 0 and x = L where ψ must be zero. Thus, at x = 0,
and D = 0. At x = L,
in which C cannot be zero as this would conflict with the Born interpretation. Therefore, since sin(kL) = 0, kL must be an integer multiple of π,
The quantization of energy levels follows from this constraint on k, since
Finite potential well[edit]
Main article: Finite potential well
A finite potential well is the generalization of the infinite potential well problem to potential wells having finite depth.
The finite potential well problem is mathematically more complicated than the infinite particle-in-a-box problem as the wave function is not pinned to zero at the walls of the well. Instead, the wave function must satisfy more complicated mathematical boundary conditions as it is nonzero in regions outside the well.
Harmonic oscillator[edit]
Main article: Quantum harmonic oscillator
As in the classical case, the potential for the quantum harmonic oscillator is given by
This problem can either be treated by directly solving the Schrödinger equation, which is not trivial, or by using the more elegant "ladder method" first proposed by Paul Dirac. The eigenstates are given by
where Hn are the Hermite polynomials
and the corresponding energy levels are
This is another example illustrating the quantification of energy for bound states.
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