HOW DIFFERENTIATE THE ORIGINAL HUMAN ' RACES' BY THE BLOOD GROUP OF HUMAN BODY :( From internate )

                        ITRODUCTION

               ;জাতিত্বের বিষয়টি সম্পূর্ণ আলাদা। এর বীজ অনেক গভীরে উপ্ত। শিকড় গেছে আরো গভীরে। আমার গায়ের রং, দেহের গড়ন, মাথার চুল কিছু আমার জাতিত্বের ইঙ্গিত বাহক। এর সঙ্গে আরো যুক্ত হয়েছে আমার ভাষা, আমার খাদ্যাভ্যাস, আমার বেশভূষা, সংস্কার, জীবনযাত্রার ধরন। এককথায় আমার সংস্কৃতি। এ বিষয়গুলো সাধারণভাবে পরিবর্তনশীল নয় - 

         

                         The most prevalent Asian blood types are O (38 per cent) and B (30 per cent). The front teeth (incisors) of Asians often display a characteristic shovel shape.

            Blood types B and AB are absent from Australian Aborigines and American Indians, and only in Dravidians and Asians does blood type AB occur in more than 5 per cent of the population.

                There is a broad variation of features within each of the human races, but a comparison of typical racial characteristics indicates some salient racial differences. Skin color, and hair and eye characteristics are principal visible differential traits.Comparison of Physical Characteristics

                   Race Skin Color Hair Eyes Blood Type (per cent)
Australian Aborigine and Papuan Chocolate-brown, black Black, wavy, curly, long Black, dark brown O (61), A (39)
American Indian Reddish-brown Black, dark brown, lank, long, circular section Black, dark brown O (91), A (9)

               Pacific Islander Brown Black, lank, long Black, brown O (42), A (50), B (7), AB (1)

                 Black Black Black, wooly, short, flat elliptical section Black, dark brown O (54), A (28), B (16), AB (2)

                    White White, tan Black, brown, blond, red, straight, wavy or curly, oval section Black, brown, blue, green, hazel, grey O (40), A (44), B (11), AB (5)

                 Dravidian Brown to black Black or dark brown, straight or wavy, long Black, dark brown O (37), A (22), B (33), AB (7)
Asian Yellow, yellow-brown Black, lank, long, circular section Epicanthal fold, black O (38), A (24), B (30), AB (8)

Source;- internate .

     

              

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 HOW   DIFFERANTIATE  THE  HUMAN  ORIGINAL  ‘ RACES”  BY  THE  HELF  OF   HUMAN  BLOOD  GROUPS

       

 ( click white  boxes  for figure )

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               A Brief History of Human Blood Groups

 

    

Dariush D FARHUD    and       Marjan ZARIF YEGANEH 

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               Introduction

                       It was not until the year 1900, when Karl Landsteiner at the University of Vienna, discovered why some blood transfusions were successful while others could be deadly. Landsteiner discovered the ABO blood group system by mixing the red cells and serum of each of his staff. He demonstrated that the serum of some people agglutinated the red cells of other. From these early experiments, he identified three types, called A, B and C (C was later to be re-named O for the German “Ohne”, meaning “without”, or “Zero”, “null” in English). The fourth less frequent blood group AB, was discovered a year later. In 1930, Landsteiner received the Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine for his work

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                      The gene that determines human ABO blood type is located on chromosome 9 (9q34.1) and is called ABO glycosyltransferase. The ABO locus has three main allelic forms: A, B, and O, as mentioned above and each of them is responsible for the production of its glycoprotein. It is therefore the combination of alleles that are inherited from parents that determines which glycoproteins (antigens) are found on persons’ blood cells and thereby their ABO blood type  .

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            Genesis and Evolution

 

As investigations have demonstrated on monkeys (Table 1), human blood groups are very old genetic indicators which have evolved during several million years (2). Based on the primary races hypothesis, it was thought that in the three major races of man, blood groups A in Europe, B in Asian, and finally O in South America have been emerged and gradually due to the migration and mixing of the races, became the present situation. But we know that in each continent, the isolated populations are seen that have completely different blood groups. For example, there is relatively high prevalence of blood group O in Siberian inhabitants; also this blood group is very common in some areas of Switzerland .

Table 1:

Percentage of blood groups in monkeys (collected by Kramps 1960)

According to another hypothesis, the emergence of all blood groups A and B and their subgroups, are resulted from successive mutations, from a basic and common blood group, which is the O group, and have been branched over millions of years (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1:

According to this hypothesis, the emergence of all blood groups is resulted from successive mutations, from the O group

Based on this theory, the old races have O blood group, such as Red Indians of South America, and Eskimos that among them the frequency of O blood group is between 75–100%. While in most of recent ethnic groups A and B blood groups are dominant.

In another hypothesis, the first blood group had been AB blood group, which gradually and over the time due to genetic mutations was resulted in A and B and finally O blood groups (Fig. 2). Base on this theory, perhaps a few million years ago all people have had type O blood only, which is more resistant against many infectious diseases.

Fig. 2:

Based on the second hypothesis, the first blood group had been AB, which gradually has been resulted in A and B and O blood groups

                The emergence and evolution of blood groups in humans is still not clear. Geographic distribution and racial blood groups A and B and O in the world (according to the Mourant design 1958) are shown in Figures 3 to ​to55(4). The geographical spread not only is a result of the above assumptions, but the current process of natural selection against environmental factors such as diseases, climate, humidity, altitude and etc. will continue.

Fig. 3:

Geographical distribution of blood group A, percentage (Mourant 1958)

Fig. 5:

                    Geographical distribution of blood group O, percentage (Mourant 1958)

After discovery of the first human blood groups (ABO) by Karl Landsteiner in 1901 , gradually from 1927, other blood groups were also discovered and reported which its collection is given in Table 2. It is important to mention that Landsteiner together with his American colleague Alexander Wiener discovered the Rh blood group and reported it in 1940, 1941.

Table 2:

Major blood groups, year of report, discoverer/s

Karl Landsteiner was born on 14^th June 1868, in Vienna, Austria; he died on 26^th June 1943 AD, at 75 years old, in the United States.

Landsteiner in his 17^th scientific paper in 1901 reported blood group ABO which was displayed at the beginning with the letters ABC. In 1930, he received the Nobel Prize in Medicine for his discovery.

In addition to the known blood groups (Table 2), nearly twenty public antigens and also sixty-specific antigen or family antigen (Private Antigens) have been reported   .

Moreover, the main blood groups ABO, gradually discovered and reported   which the most notably of them are as follows:

1. A subgroups, including A1, A2, A3, and also rare types A4, A5, A6, Z, X, End, boutu, g, i.
2. B subgroups, including B1, B2, B3, and rare types w, x, v, m.
3. Subgroups, including O1, O2, O3, and other types such as Yy, Hh, Xx, and Bombay.

                        The ABO blood group was discovered in the first decade of the 1900s by Austrian physician Karl Landsteiner. Through a series of experiments, Landsteiner classified blood into the four well-known types. The “type” actually refers to the presence of a particular type of antigen sticking up from the surface of a red blood cell. An antigen is anything that elicits a response from an immune cell called an antibody. Antibodies latch onto foreign substances that enter the body, such as bacteria and viruses, and clump them together for removal by other parts of the immune system. The human body naturally makes antibodies that will attack certain types of red-blood-cell antigens. For example, people with type       A blood have A antigens on their red blood cells and make antibodies that attack B antigens; people with type B blood have B antigens on their red blood cells and make antibodies that attack A antigens. So, type A people can’t donate their blood to type B people and vice versa. People who are type AB have both A and B antigens on their red blood cells and therefore don’t make any A or B antibodies while people who are type O have no A or B antigens and make both A and B antibodies. (This is hard to keep track of, so I hope the chart below helps!)

                         After Landsteiner determined the pattern of the ABO blood group, he realized blood types are inherited, and blood typing became one of the first ways to test paternity. Later, researchers learned ABO blood types are governed by  a single gene that comes in three varieties: A, B and O. (People who are type AB inherit an A gene from one parent and a B gene from the other.)

This chart lists the antigens and antibodies made by the different ABO blood types. Image: InvictaHOG/Wikicommons

                      More than a hundred years after Landsteiner’s Nobel Prize-winning work, scientists still have no idea what function these blood antigens serve. Clearly, people who are type O—the most common blood type—do just fine without them. What scientists have found in the last century, however, are some interesting associations between blood types and disease. In some infectious diseases, bacteria may closely resemble certain blood antigens, making it difficult for antibodies to detect the difference between foreign invaders and the body’s own blood. People who are type A, for instance, seem more susceptible to smallpox, while people who are type B appear more affected by some E. coli infections.

                      Over the last hundred years, scientists have also discovered that the ABO blood group is just one of more than 20 human blood groups. The Rh factor is another well known blood group, referring to the “positive” or “negative” in blood types, such as A-positive or B-negative. (The Rh refers to Rhesus macaques, which were used in early studies of the blood group.) People who are Rh-positive have Rh antigens on their red blood cells; people who are Rh-negative don’t and produce antibodies that will attack Rh antigens. The Rh blood group plays a role in the sometimes fatal blood disease erythroblastosis fetalis that can develop in newborns if an Rh-negative women gives birth to an Rh-positive baby and her antibodies attack her child.

                       Most people have never heard of the numerous other blood groups—such as the MN, Diego, Kidd and Kell—probably because they trigger smaller or less frequent immune reactions. And in some cases, like the MN blood group, humans don’t produce antibodies against the antigens. One “minor” blood type that does have medical significance is the Duffy blood group. Plasmodium vivax, one of the parasites that causes malaria, latches onto the Duffy antigen when it invades the body’s red blood cells. People who lack the Duffy antigens, therefore, tend to be immune to this form of malaria.

                     Although researchers have found these interesting associations between blood groups and disease, they still really don’t understand how and why such blood antigens evolved in the first place. These blood molecules stand as a reminder that we still have a lot to learn about human biology.

        

Although all blood is made of the same basic elements, not all blood is alike. In fact, there are eight different common blood types, which are determined by the presence or absence of certain antigens – substances that can trigger an immune response if they are foreign to the body. Since some antigens can trigger a patient's immune system to attack the transfused blood, safe blood transfusions depend on careful blood typing and cross-matching.

                          There are four major blood groups determined by the presence or absence of two antigens – A and B – on the surface of red blood cells:

·     Group A – has only the A antigen on red cells (and B antibody in the plasma)

·     Group B – has only the B antigen on red cells (and A antibody in the plasma)

·     Group AB – has both A and B antigens on red cells (but neither A nor B antibody in the plasma)

·     Group O – has neither A nor B antigens on red cells (but both A and B antibody are in the plasma)

There are very specific ways in which blood types must be matched for a safe transfusion. See the chart below: 

alt="A can donate red blood cells to A's and AB's" name="img_2" v:shapes="_x0000_i1073">	' alt="A Blood Type" border=0 name="img_2_don" v:shapes="_x0000_i1074">
	' alt="AB Blood Type" border=0 name="img_4_don" v:shapes="_x0000_i1080">

                            In addition to the A and B antigens, there is a third antigen called the Rh factor, which can be either present (+) or absent ( – ). In general, Rh negative blood is given to Rh-negative patients, and Rh positive blood or Rh negative blood may be given to Rh positive patients.

·     The universal red cell donor has Type O negative blood type.

·     The universal plasma donor has Type AB positive blood type.

O positive is the most common blood type. Not all ethnic groups have the same mix of these blood types. Hispanic people, for example, have a relatively high number of O’s, while Asian people have a relatively high number of B’s. The mix of the different blood types in the U.S. population is:

	Caucasians	African American	Hispanic	Asian
O +	37%	47%	53%	39%
O -	8%	4%	4%	1%
A +	33%	24%	29%	27%
A -	7%	2%	2%	0.5%
B +	9%	18%	9%	25%
B -	2%	1%	1%	0.4%
AB +	3%	4%	2%	7%
AB -	1%	0.3%	0.2%	0.1%

                           Some patients require a closer blood match than that provided by the ABO positive/negative blood typing. For example, sometimes if the donor and recipient are from the same ethnic background the chance of a reaction can be reduced. That’s why an African-American blood donation may be the best hope for the needs of patients with sickle cell disease, 98 percent of whom are of African-American descent.

It’s inherited. Like eye color, blood type is passed genetically from your parents. Whether your blood group is type A, B, AB or O is based on the blood types of your mother and father.

This chart shows the potential blood types you may inherit. 

	Parent 1	AB	AB	AB	AB	B	A	A	O	O	O
	Parent 2	AB	B	A	O	B	B	A	B	A	O

           

     ABO Blood and Human Origins

by Daniel Criswell, Ph.D. *

 

 

                         Many people know what their blood type is and understand that blood types must be matched in a medical emergency. The ABO blood group is the most significant blood factor in clinical applications involving blood transfusions. Understanding the importance of the ABO blood group is not limited to clinical applications, however. With our recent ability to rapidly sequence genes, the ABO blood group is also proving to be a valuable asset for determining human migration patterns and origins.

                      What Determines Blood Type?

                       ABO blood types are determined by a cell surface marker that identifies the cell as belonging to "self" or to that individual. These cell surface markers are characterized by a protein or lipid that has an extension of a particular arrangement of sugars. Figure 1 shows the arrangement of sugars that determines each of the A, B, and O blood types.¹ Note that each is identical, except that types A and B have an additional sugar: N-acetylgalactosamine for A, and galactose for B.

These sugar arrangements are part of an antigen capable of stimulating an immune response that produces antibodies to identify and destroy foreign antigens. People with blood type A produce antibody B when exposed to antigen B, and those with blood type B produce antibody A when exposed to antigen A. Blood type AB, however, produces no antibodies because both antigens present on the cells are recognized as "self." Blood type O produces antibodies A and B, because neither antigen A nor B is present on the cells of type O individuals |Table 1|. Antibodies A and B belong to the "M" class of immunoglobins and are expressed from the immunoglobin genes of B-cell lymphocytes upon exposure to foreign antigens. Immunoglobin genes are capable of producing an essentially infinite number of antibodies through a complex editing and selective process.¹ Consequently, there isn't a specific "antibody A" gene or "antibody B" gene inherited with a complementary A or B antigen.

                      A gene for the specification of antigens A or B or type O determines the blood type. An enzyme, glycosyltransferase, is the product of this gene,² and differences in the sequence of this enzyme (polymorphisms) determine whether the enzyme attaches N-acetylgalactosamine (antigen A), galactose (antigen B), or no sugar (type O) |Figure 1|. People inherit two genes for blood type; or, more accurately, two alleles, one from each parent. These alleles are represented as IA for type A, IB for type B, and i for type O. Both glycosyltransferase alleles for antigens A and B are expressed when inherited together, producing both antigens and resulting in blood type AB. When the allele for blood type A or B is inherited with type O, the individual will be either type A or B. This is not necessarily because the type O allele is silenced or recessive, but is instead a result of the activity of the A or B glycosyltransferase, while the glycosyltransferase for the O allele is inactive.² A type O individual has both alleles for the inactive glycosyltransferase.

                      Blood Types and Human Origins

                  So what light does this shed on human origins? Is it possible for the two people of the Creation account (Adam and Eve) or the eight people on Noah's Ark to give rise to all of the ABO blood types present in humans today? If Adam and Eve were heterozygous for blood types A and B, respectively (one allele for type O and one allele for either type A or B), they could have produced children that had any of the ABO blood types, as illustrated in Figure 2. The Punnett square simply predicts what the possible phenotypes would be for a given couple's children. From the number of children that Adam and Eve likely produced, it is not difficult to envision all of the ABO blood types being passed down to their offspring.

                          If Adam and Eve were heterozygous for the ABO blood type gene locus, then the allele frequency for the type O allele is 50 percent (2 of 4 alleles), the allele frequency for type A is 25 percent (1 of 4 alleles), and the allele frequency for type B is 25 percent |Figure 2|. If there are no selective pressures or genetic drift for these alleles, then the allele frequency will remain constant through all of their descendants. The overall allele frequency in the Punnett square is actually the same for the children as it might have been for Adam and Eve. This scenario would also be true for Noah's family and their descendants.

                 Modern Allele Frequencies

                     Do human populations today reflect these allele frequencies? The answer is yes. Table 2 shows the allele frequencies for several populations. (Note that these are not blood type frequencies.) There is a general increase in the frequency of the type O allele, and in many populations a drop in the type B allele. But as expected, the frequencies for each allele are close to what they could have been at the start of human history or with Noah's family. The shift in frequency (the increase in type O and decrease in type B) can be caused by migration of people groups that had a higher or lower frequency for one of the alleles at the time of migration. It could also result from random genetic drift, or from a mutation that renders glycosyltransferase inactive--which would result in blood type O from type A and is likely one cause for the increase in the frequency of the O allele.

                        Unfortunately, the origin of the ABO alleles gets more complicated when examining the actual gene for glycosyltransferase. There are more than 180 variations (polymorphisms) for the ABO gene listed on the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) website,⁵ and each one of these polymorphisms can be assigned to one of the three ABO alleles. Most of these polymorphisms do not change glycosyltransferase activity or blood type, but can identify ethnic groups that formed after humans migrated across the globe. Mutation and chromosome crossing-over events are the most plausible cause of these variants.

                     There are DNA differences, or polymorphisms, that determine the function of glycosyltransferase, resulting in different ABO blood types. These differences are few, but not trivial. The glycosyltransferase specific for antigen A synthesis differs from the antigen B-specific enzyme by just four amino acid residues (out of 354), and there are several DNA sequence differences in the alleles that code for the A- and O-specific enzyme.²The four differences between the A and B glycosyltransferase are enough to allow the enzyme to specify the characteristic terminal sugar that distinguishes antigens A and B. A single DNA deletion in the A-specific allele results in a truncated version of the glycosyltransferase gene product, eliminating enzymatic activity and effectively resulting in blood type O.

                   Origin Implications of Blood Type O

                 It can be argued that one of the three alleles is ancestral to the other two. For example, the origin of the O allele, and subsequently blood type O, is simply the result of the deletion resulting in a loss of function of glycosyltransferase activity for the A antigen. A mutation resulting in the loss of function in a protein, at best, would be a "nearly neutral" mutation since blood type O does not appear to have any deleterious effects or selective advantage over the other two blood types. Because neutral or nearly neutral mutations have no selective advantage, it is likely impossible to fix these mutations in a large population of organisms (fixation = 100 percent O alleles) in a reasonable length of time. For example, if a mutation that gave blood type O were actually 1 percent more beneficial than type A, it would take 100,000 generations to fix this mutation in the modern human population from a beginning population of 10,000 people.^{7, 8} The larger the population at the time of the mutation, the longer it will take for fixation and the less likely the mutation will ever be fixed.

Molecular evolutionary time scales place modern humans at roughly 200,000 years ago, a timeframe too short to increase the O allele frequency to 60 percent of all people alive today within a population of 10,000. Certainly a biblical timeframe would be far too short for such fixation. The deletion responsible for converting an A allele to an O allele is not present in chimpanzees, and sequence comparisons between humans and chimps indicate this allele is unique to the human lineage,^{10, 11} further complicating an evolutionary scenario for the origin of blood type O. This scenario would fit better if the O allele was rare in the population today and appeared in a specific people group. However, the O allele is by far the most common allele globally, indicating that if it did originate via a mutational event, it had to occur when the human population was extremely small and before humans divided into ethnic groups and spread across the globe.

It is possible to achieve the current O allele frequency via a mutation if it occurred at the time of Noah's Flood and was passed on by one of Noah's family members. Noah or Mrs. Noah could have had the O allele and passed it on to each one of their sons, or the alleles could have mutated in one son's offspring. The population of the human race at the time of the Flood and immediately afterward certainly qualifies as a population size that would enable a mutated allele to become common as the population grew. With a starting population of only eight people, the O allele could easily have increased in frequency through random genetic drift in the post-Flood population, reflecting the present levels that are observed today and consistent with computer simulations modeling fixation.

Conclusion

If Adam and Eve did not have all three blood type alleles, then there must have been a mutation creating the O allele while the human race was still very small and before humans dispersed across the globe. Whether the origin of blood type O was in Adam and Eve at Creation or whether it arose as a mutational event that took place shortly before or after the Flood, it strongly supports that all humans today are descendants of two individuals or a small group of people that eventually populated the globe. Both scenarios are consistent with the biblical model of human origins.

         

                                                                                                                       RACIAL &       E            

THNIC DISTRIBUTION of ABO BLOOD TYPES

There are racial and ethnic differences in Blood type and composition. We display these differences, in chart form, to show differences, purities and migration. The ABO Blood group system was discovered in 1901 and since it is of major importance in medicine, samples have been diligently collected from the most remote of people groups for a century. Of no other human characteristic is so much data available. Most populations have migrated and mixed. Unfortunately the reliability of the Blood data for assessing relationships between population groups is very limited. This is mostly due to the lack of availability and interchange of this important data. As the chart below reveals, the frequency and purity of the four main ABO Blood groups varies in populations throughout the world. Great variation occurs in different groups within a given country; even a small country, as one ethnic group mixes, or not, with another. Blood type purity depends on migration, disease, interrelational-reproductive opportunity, traditions and customs, geography and the initial Blood type assigned. Publishing the ethnic differences in Blood type and the racial differences in Blood type is not, in the present-day world, considered to be politically correct. We compile and maintain this database through and thanks to, often times, reliable, confidential sources. Every Blood gathering entity in the world must gather this information to stay in business, but almost every one of them is afraid to publish the racial and ethnic differences in Blood type, given the emotionally charged political climate . Discount Cord Blood Registry. VIEW ABO BLOOD TYPE INFORMATION For example, early European races are characterized by a very low type B frequency, and a relatively high type A frequency while the Asiatic races are characterized by a high frequency of types A and B. The following chart does not consider Rh factor and may vary in specific regions. It is also different for some very particular racial or ethnic groups. We have highlighted interesting pure anomalies. We read from time to time that there are certain racial groups that are more susceptible to one Blood disease or rare Blood disease, Blood disorder or Blood inclusion than others. This information could be life-saving, if you are a member of that group. . Rare blood types can cause Blood supply problems for unprepared Blood banks and hospitals. For example, the rare Blood type Duffy-negative Blood, occurs much more frequently in people of African ancestry. The relatively rarity of this rare Blood type in the rest of the North-American population can result in a shortage of that rare Blood type for patients of African ethnicity, in need of a Blood transfusion. Keep in mind, if you have a rare Blood type, there may be some risk in traveling to parts of the world where your rare Blood type may be in short supply. Knowledge of ABO Blood type frequency can be life saving information.  Blood test results, Blood tests, Rare Blood types, blood disorders. The frequency with which Blood types are observed is determined by the frequency with which the three alleles of the ABO gene are found in different parts of the world. Variation in this allele frequency of the ABO gene reflects the social tendency of populations to marry and reproduce within their national, regional, or ethnic group. As people throughout the world intermingle to a greater degree, the distribution of the different Blood types will continue to become more uniform. Red cell antigens are the pheno-typical expression of our inherited genes. One of the most common questions that we get is about the the ethnic and racial distribution of human Blood groups. In response, following here is our collection of basic ABO Blood group data, sorted by people groups. One note; we do not consider the very small percentage of individuals who inherit unusual combinations of "minor" antigens. Everyone carries substances on their red Blood cells, called antigens. In addition to the well known ABO classified groupings, and Rh factor, there are over 260 "minor" antigens that have been identified. These antigens may appear in varying combinations. The presence or absence of these specific "minor" antigens single out that particular Blood type as being "rare." All Blood types are inherited and therefore certain rare Blood combinations are more common in specific ethnic and racial groups. We review this subject HERE . Discount coupons for DNA tests. Pharmacy shelves are stocked with do-it-yourself home tests for Blood glucose, Blood cholesterol paternity tests and pregnancy tests. OraSure Technologies Inc., makes and sells a 20-minute, at-home test that screens for two HIV strains using a swab device that tests saliva, awaiting the FDA . There is precise and up-to-date data available. These racial and ethnic Blood typing and population migration statistics are important in modern medicine for many reasons. The overriding problem in obtaining and publishing this information in the United States, and to a slightly lesser extent in Western Europe, is political correctness. It is not nice to talk about the ways that I may be different from you! This data has some holes in it; there are national and/or ethic groups whose statistics are not known to BloodBook.com. Those are noted with a . If you can contribute accurate data to BloodBook.com, please click HERE. We encourage to visit the Bloodmobile.   Free discount coupons for DNA testing. We are grateful for the many recent updates from Blood professionals and Blood Banks and DNA parental test facilities around the world. This program is working well, thanks to you   Race and Ethnicity Blood Type Analysis Chart   Rare Blood Types   ABO Blood Type Distribution Geographic Study  A Word about Blood-related DNA Genealogy and Anthropological Sampling - The relatively new science of DNA research applied to full-blooded, indigenous populations from around the world has led to the discovery and documentation of genetic markers that are unique to populations, ethnicity and/or deep ancestral migration patterns. The markers having very specific modes of inheritance, which are relatively unique to specific populations, are used, among other things, to assess ancestral and kinship probabilities. The following chart considers only these full-blooded, indigenous groups.

PEOPLE GROUP	O	A	B	AB
Aborigines	61	39	0	0
Abyssinians	43	27	25	5
Ainu (Japan)	17	32	32	18
Albanians	38	43	13	6
Grand Andamanese	9	60	23	9
Arabs	34	31	29	6
Armenians	31	50	13	6
Asian (in USA - General)	40	28	27	5
Austrians	36	44	13	6
Bantus	46	30	19	5
Basques	51	44	4	1
Belgians	47	42	8	3
Blackfoot (N. Am. Indian)	17	82	0	1
Bororo (Brazil)	100	0	0	0
Brazilians	47	41	9	3
Bulgarians	32	44	15	8
Burmese	36	24	33	7
Buryats (Siberia)	33	21	38	8
Bushmen	56	34	9	2
Chinese-Canton	46	23	25	6
Chinese-Peking	29	27	32	13
Chuvash	30	29	33	7
Czechs	30	44	18	9
Danes	41	44	11	4
Dutch	45	43	9	3
Egyptians	33	36	24	8
English	47	42	9	3
Eskimos (Alaska)	38	44	13	5
Eskimos (Greenland)	54	36	23	8
Estonians	34	36	23	8
Fijians	44	34	17	6
Finns	34	41	18	7
French	43	47	7	3
Georgians	46	37	12	4
Germans	41	43	11	5
Greeks	40	42	14	5
Gypsies (Hungary)	29	27	35	10
Hawaiians	37	61	2	1
Hindus (Bombay)	32	29	28	11
Hungarians	36	43	16	5
Icelanders	56	32	10	3
Indians (India - General)	37	22	33	7
Indians (USA - General)	79	16	4	1
Irish	52	35	10	3
Italians (Milan)	46	41	11	3
Japanese	30	38	22	10
Jews (Germany)	42	41	12	5
Jews (Poland)	33	41	18	8
Kalmuks	26	23	41	11
Kikuyu (Kenya)	60	19	20	1

Koreans	28	32	31	10
Lapps	29	63	4	4
Latvians	32	37	24	7
Lithuanians	40	34	20	6
Malasians	62	18	20	0
Maoris	46	54	1	0
Mayas	98	1	1	1
Moros	64	16	20	0
Navajo (N. Am. Indian)	73	27	0	0
Nicobarese (Nicobars)	74	9	15	1
Norwegians	39	50	8	4
Papuas (New Guinea)	41	27	23	9
Persians	38	33	22	7
Peru (Indians)	100	0	0	0
Philippinos	45	22	27	6
Poles	33	39	20	9
Portuguese	35	53	8	4
Rumanians	34	41	19	6
Russians	33	36	23	8
Sardinians	50	26	19	5
Scotts	51	34	12	3
Serbians	38	42	16	5
Shompen (Nicobars)	100	0	0	0
Slovaks	42	37	16	5
South Africans	45	40	11	4
Spanish	38	47	10	5
Sudanese	62	16	21	0
Swedes	38	47	10	5
Swiss	40	50	7	3
Tartars	28	30	29	13
Thais	37	22	33	8
Turks	43	34	18	6
Ukrainians	37	40	18	6
United Kingdom (GB)	47	42	8	3
USA (US blacks)	49	27	20	4
USA (US whites)	45	40	11	4
USA Blood Types ( US all)	44	42	10	4
Vietnamese	42	22	30	5
Welsh

A Contribution to the Physical Anthropology and Population Genetics 
L. Beckman -  *as revised by BloodBook.com 12/07/2000; 07/22/2001; 04/10/2002; 05/22/2004; 07/13/2008.

Distribution of Blood Types

                            Blood provides an ideal opportunity for the study of human variation without cultural prejudice.  It can be easily classified for many different genetically inherited blood typing systems.  Also significant is the fact that we rarely take blood types into consideration in selecting mates.  In addition, few people know their own type today and no one did prior to 1900.  As a result, differences in blood type frequencies around the world are most likely due to other factors than social discrimination.  Contemporary Japan is somewhat of an exception since there are popular Japanese stereotypes about people with different blood types.  This could affect choice in marriage partners for some Japanese.
                    All human populations share the same 29 known blood systems, although they differ in the frequencies of specific types.  Given the evolutionary closeness of apes and monkeys to our species, it is not surprising that some of them share a number of blood typing systems with us as well.
                When we donate blood or have surgery, a small sample is usually taken in advance for at least ABO  and Rh  systems typing.  If you are O+, the O is your ABO type and the + is your Rh type.  It is possible to be A, B, AB, or O as well as Rh+  or Rh- .  You inherited your blood types from your parents and the environment in which you live cannot change them.

 
ABO Blood Type System

                We have learned a good deal about how common each of the ABO blood types is around the world.  It is quite clear that the distribution patterns are complex.  Both clinal anddiscontinuous distributions exist, suggesting a complicated evolutionary history for humanity.  This can be seen with the global frequency patterns of the type B blood allele(shown in the map below).  Note that it is highest in Central Asia and lowest among the indigenous peoples of the Americas and Australia.  However, there are relatively high frequency pockets in Africa as well.  Overall in the world, B is the rarest ABO blood allele.  Only 16% of humanity have it.

Distribution of the B type blood allele in native populations of the world

The A blood allele is somewhat more common around the world than B.  About 21% of all people share the A allele. The highest frequencies of A are found in small, unrelated populations, especially the Blackfoot Indians of Montana (30-35%), the Australian Aborigines (many groups are 40-53%), and the Lapps, or Saami people, of Northern Scandinavia (50-90%).  The A allele apparently was absent among Central and South American Indians.

Distribution of the A type blood allele in native populations of the world

The O blood type (usually resulting from the absence of both A and B alleles) is very common around the world.  About 63% of humans share it.  Type O is particularly high in frequency among the indigenous populations of Central and South America, where it approaches 100%.  It also is relatively high among Australian Aborigines and in Western Europe (especially in populations with Celtic ancestors).  The lowest frequency of O is found in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, where B is common.

Distribution of the O type blood in native populations of the world

Other Blood Type Systems

The majority of the people in the world have the Rh+ blood type.  However, it is more common in some regions.  Native Americans and Australian Aborigines were very likely 99-100% Rh+ before they began interbreeding with people from other parts of the world.  This does not imply that Native Americans and Australian Aborigines are historically closely related to each other.  Most Subsaharan African populations are around 97-99% Rh+.  East Asians are 93-99+% Rh+.  Europeans have the lowest frequency of this blood type for any continent.  They are 83-85% Rh+.  The lowest known frequency is found among the Basques of the Pyrenees Mountains between France and Spain.  They are only 65% Rh+.
The distribution patterns for the Diego  blood system are even more striking.  Evidently, all Africans, Europeans, East Indians, Australian Aborigines, and Polynesians are Diego negative.  The only populations with Diego positive people may be Native Americans (2-46%) and East Asians (3-12%).  This nonrandom distribution pattern fits well with the hypothesis of an East Asian origin for Native Americans.

Conclusion

These patterns of ABO, Rh, and Diego blood type distributions are not similar to those for skin color or other so-called "racial" traits.  The implication is that the specific causes responsible for the distribution of human blood types have been different than those for other traits that have been commonly employed to categorize people into "races."  Since it would be possible to divide up humanity into radically different groupings using blood typing instead of other genetically inherited traits such as skin color, we have more conclusive evidence that the commonly used typological model for understanding human variation is scientifically unsound.
The more we study the precise details of human variation, the more we understand how complex are the patterns.  They cannot be easily summarized or understood.  Yet, this hard-earned scientific knowledge is generally ignored in most countries because of more demanding social and political concerns.  As a result, discrimination based on presumed "racial" groups still continues.  It is important to keep in mind that this "racial" classification often has more to do with cultural and historical distinctions than it does with biology.  In a very real sense, "race" is a distinction that is created by culture not biology.

                Rh blood group system

 

.

                The Rh blood group system (including the Rh factor) is one of thirty-five current human blood group systems. It is the most important blood group system after ABO. At present, the Rh blood group system consists of 50 defined blood-group antigens, among which the five antigens D, C, c, E, and e are the most important. The commonly used terms Rh factor, Rh positive and Rh negative refer to the D antigen only. Besides its role in blood transfusion, the Rh blood group system—specifically, the D antigen—is used to determine the risk of hemolytic disease of the newborn (or erythroblastosis fetalis) as prevention is the best approach to the management of this condition. As part of prenatal care, a blood test may be used to find out the blood type of a fetus. If the Rh antigen is lacking, the blood is called Rh-negative. If the antigen is present, it is called Rh-positive. When the mother is Rh-negative and the father is Rh-positive, the fetus can inherit the Rh factor from the father. This makes the fetus Rh-positive too. Problems can arise when the fetus’s blood has the Rh factor and the mother’s blood does not.

                A mother who is Rh-negative may develop antibodies to an Rh-positive baby. If a small amount of the baby’s blood mixes with the mother's blood, which often happens in such situations, the mother's body may respond as if it were allergic to the baby. The mother's body may make antibodies to the Rh antigens in the baby’s blood. This means the mother has become sensitized and her antibodies may cross the placenta and attack the baby’s blood. Such an attack breaks down the fetus’s red blood cells, creating anemia (a low number of red blood cells). This condition is called hemolytic disease or hemolytic anemia. It can become severe enough to cause serious illness, brain damage, or even death in the fetus or newborn. Sensitization can occur any time the fetus’s blood mixes with the mother’s blood. It can occur if an Rh-negative woman has had a spontaneous or undetected miscarriage of a Rh positive fetus.

Rh factor ;-

 

An individual either has, or does not have, the "Rh factor" on the surface of their red blood cells. This term strictly refers only to the most immunogenic D antigen of the Rh blood group system, or the Rh− blood group system. The status is usually indicated by Rh positive (Rh+ does have the D antigen) or Rh negative (Rh− does not have the D antigen) suffix to the ABO blood type. However, other antigens of this blood group system are also clinically relevant. These antigens are listed separately (see below: Rh nomenclature). In contrast to the ABO blood group, immunization against Rh can generally only occur through blood transfusion or placental exposure during pregnancy in women.

 (From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia )